Meese, Edwin, 203
Memoranda of Notification (MON), 93, 104. See also Presidential Findings
Meyer, Cord, 179
Millis, John, 59
Mitchell, John, 169–70
MI-6. See British Secret Intelligence Service (BSIS)
Mondale, Walter, 183, 190
Monroe, James, 23, 31
Morrison, James, 143
Mossadegh, Mohammad, 6, 127, 137, 140
Most Favored Nation status, 199
MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), 179–80
Mujahedin, 42, 189, 206
Murphy, Walter F., 91
myths of covert action by CIA, 23–45, 221, 230n6
assassination of John F. Kennedy, xvii, 78
assassinations of foreign leaders, xvi, 42–45, 78, 157–58, 173, 198, 233n40
CIA exists only to run covert action programs, 32–34, 231n19
CIA independent of president’s control (“rogue elephant”), xvi–xvii, 3–4, 24–28, 34–37, 100, 110–11, 151, 225n2, 232n27
CIA originates covert action plans rather than president, 102–3
Congress does not know about it, 28–32, 230n12
consumes most of the budget, 34, 231n22
covert action renamed “special activities” to obscure meaning, 40–41
created AIDS virus, 77–78, 198, 225n5
expensive paramilitary actions, mostly about, 40, 84
harmful to United States interests, 37–39
illegal under the Constitution, 31–32, 230–31n18
Iran-Contra a rogue CIA program, 34–37, 232n27
Iranian hostage rescue operation, 45
meddling in other countries illegally, 41–42
overthrowing governments, mostly about, 40, 232n31
reported in the media, 40
trained Osama bin-Laden, 42
undemocratic in concept, 31
Watergate scandal, being involved with, 42
narcotics cartels, 5, 11, 88, 219, 220
Nasser, Gamal, 149
National China News Agency, 73
National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), 179
National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) 65–57, 142–43
National Psychological Strategy Board (PSB), 124. See also 10/5 Panel
National Review, 76
National Security Act (1947), 31, 115, 116
National Security Council Action Memorandum (NSAM). See National Security Council Documents
National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations (NSC-5412), 134–37
National Security Council Documents: Approval and Review of Special Activities (NSDD-286), 101, 196, 240n20
Basic National Security Policy (NSC-162/2), 132–33
Change in Name of Special Group 5412 (NSC Action Memorandum 303), 159
Combating Terrorism (NSDD-138), 208
Coordination of Foreign Intelligence Information Measures (NSC-4), 118
Covert Action Policy Approval and Coordination Procedures (NSDD-159), 101, 196
Intelligence Requirements/National Needs Process (PDD-35), 218
National Security Council Directive on Covert Operations (NSC-5412), 134–37
National Security Council Structure (NSDD-2), 194
NSAM 303, 159
NSC-1/1, 115–17
NSC-1/2, 116–17, 243n11
NSC-1/3, 117, 243n12
NSC-4, 118, 123
NSC-4/A, 118–19, 121
NSC-10/2, 120–24
NSC-10/5, 123
NSC-20, 126
NSC-20/4, 126
NSC-50, 121
NSC-59, 123
NSC-68, 38
NSC-74, 124
NSC-136, 6
NSC-136/1, 7
NSC-141, 124
NSC-162/2, 132–33, 138
NSC-5412, 134–37, 151
NSC-5412/1, 135
NSC-5412/2, 135, 168
NSC-5518, 141
NSDD-2, 194
NSDD-32, 197, 201, 202
NSDD-54, 198
NSDD-66, 199
NSDD-75, 199–200
NSDD-138, 208
NSDD-159, 101, 196, 240nn19–20
NSDD-166, 206
NSDD-286, xv, 101, 105, 196, 240n20
NSDM-40, 168
NSD-1, 214–15
NSR-29, 214
Organization of the National Security Council (PDD-2), 216
Organization of the National Security Council System (NSD-1), 214–15
PDD-2, 216
PDD-39, 219
Protracted Economic Warfare Against the USSR (NSDD-66), 199
Responsibility for the Conduct, Supervision, and Coordination of Covert Action Operations (NSDM-40), 168
Scope and Pace of Covert Operations (NSC-10/5), 123
U.S. National Security Strategy (NSDD-32), 197
U.S. Objectives with Respect to the USSR to Counter Soviet Threats to U.S. Security (NSC-20/4), 126
U.S. Policy, Programs, and Strategy in Afghanistan (NSDD-166), 206
United States Policy Towards Eastern Europe (NSDD-54), 198
U.S. Relations with the USSR (NSDD-75), 199–200. See also Executive Orders; Position of the United States with Respect to Italy series
National Security Council (NSC), xvi, 24, 31, 37, 53, 118, 142, 159
approval and review of covert action by, 101, 106, 122, 132, 194–95, 197, 217
establishment of, 115
exclusion of from running covert action, 100
as highest Executive Branch entity to review covert action, 195
meetings under Bush, George H.W., 215–16
and propaganda, 79
National Security Council Structure (NSDD-2), 194
National Security Decision Directive (NSDD). See National Security Council Documents
National Security Decision Memorandum (NSDM). See National Security Council Documents
National Security Directive (NSD). See National Security Council Documents
National Security Planning Group (NSPG), 101, 194–95, 197, 203
National Security Review (NSR). See National Security Council Documents
National Student Association, 125
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) Party, 179–80
Neustadt, Richard G., 19
neutron bomb, 186
Newsom, David D., 20
news organizations, and propaganda, 72, 73–74, 76–77, 78–79
New York Times, 141
Nhu, Ngo Dinh, 43–44
Nicaragua, 54–56, 190–91, 203–5, 238n23
compromise of covert action in media, 253n30
mining harbors in, 55, 204, 234n11
Nixon, Richard M., 30, 98, 124, 165, 167–77
and Chile, 21, 34, 44, 48, 102, 156, 157, 171–73
and the CIA, 26, 34, 169, 172
congressional oversight, lack of under, 168–69, 172
continuing Johnson’s covert action programs, 160
and Iran/Iraq/Kurds, 173, 174–77
and Japan, 140
security organization under, 168–71
and the Soviet Union, 7, 83, 174, 186
and Tibet, 144–45
understanding of covert action, 9, 48, 167
Noriega, Manuel, 95
North, Oliver, 31
North Korea, 128, 143
North Vietnam, 21
Nutter, John J., 148
Office of International Information Programs (IIP), 73, 237n4
Office of Management and Budget, 146, 177, 184
Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), 123, 124, 244n29, 244n33
Office of Special Operations (OSO), 119–20
Office of Strategic Influence, 68
Omnibus Crime Act (1986), 209
Omnibus Findings, 184–85. See also Presidential Findings
“open sources” of intelligence collection, 10, 227n2
Operation
Eagle Claw. See Iranian hostage rescue operation
Operation Fortitude. See World War II, covert action programs
Operation Mongoose. See assassination plans: for Castro
Operations Advisory Group (OAG), 177–78
Operations Coordinating Board (OCB), 135
Operation ZAPATA. See Bay of Pigs operation
Organization of the National Security Council (PDD-2), 216
Organization of the National Security Council System (NSD-1), 214–15
Paese Sera, 78
Pahlavi, Shah Mohammad Reza, 17
Pakistan, 206
Panama, 95
paramilitary operations: in Afghanistan, 84
in Central America, 45
against China, 128
during cold war, inside the Iron Curtain, 126–27
as component of covert action discipline, 15–16, 64, 71, 84–85
in Cuba, Bay of Pigs operation, 154–55
difficulty of keeping covert, 40, 49, 67
and Eisenhower, 132, 135, 138, 139, 143
in Guatemala, 138, 139
harmful to United States interests, 6
in Indochina, 45
in Indonesia, 143
Iranian hostage rescue operation, support for, 45
under Kennedy, 152, 156
in Laos, 20–21
legal aspects of, 19, 122, 123
myth of most covert actions being, 40, 84
in Nicaragua, 204
number of compared with other types of programs, 40
in Philippines, 128
risk in, 110
and “special activities,” compared with, 15–16
“stay behind” program in Europe, 126
in Tibet, 143
training foreign military forces, 84–85, 96
and Truman, 122, 123, 126–27, 128
and war on terrorism, 68–69, 231n22
during World War II, 59
Pasternak, Boris, 75
Patterson, Robert, 115
PBSUCCESS. See Guatemala: and 1954 removal of Arbenz
Peoples’ Democratic Republic of Yemen, 189. See also Yemen Arab Republic (YAR)
Pforzheimer, Walter, 92
Philby, Kim, 127
Philippines, 128, 245n48
Phu, Dien Bien, 141
Pike, Otis, 175
Pike Committee, 43, 167, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178. See also congressional/senatorial investigations
Pinochet, Augusto, 173
pitfalls of covert action, 47–57
arrogance of appointed staff, 53, 65, 235n10, 236n13
causing tragedy, 5, 38–39, 139–40, 176–77
compromise of, 40, 57, 65, 95, 98, 110, 127, 143–44, 175, 253n30
conflict between President and Congress, 54–56
creating worse situation for U.S., 6–7, 37–39, 139, 140
expense of, 55
inserting too late in foreign policy initiatives, 54
limited knowledge/excluding experts, 98–99, 154
substituting covert action for foreign policy, 51–53
success creating misguided notion of ease of covert action, 140, 245n48
thought of as “silver bullet” to slay Communism, 139, 140, 144, 149
unclear objectives, 56–57
zealotry of those running covert action, 205, 253–54n34
Planning and Coordination Group (PCG), 101, 135
plausible deniability, 93, 94, 98, 99, 122, 135, 143, 152, 165, 240n12
Poindexter, John, 30–31
Poland, 4, 83, 188, 194, 201–3. See also Solidarity
Policy Coordination Committees (PCC), 215
Policy Review Committee (PRC), 184
political action programs: in Afghanistan, 188–89
in British Guyana, 157
in Chile, 156–57, 165, 171–72, 171–73
costs of, 40
and covert action, as part of discipline of, 64, 71, 81–84
in Dominican Republic, 147
economic disruption, 83
in Europe in 1970s/80s, 186, 198–99
in France, 6, 20, 114, 243–44n20
in Indonesia, 83
in Italy, 6, 83, 115–20, 159–65, 238nn20–21
in Japan, 6, 83, 140–41
“Nationalities” program against Soviet Union, 187
against Soviet Union during 1980s, 197–200
types of actions in, 82
Popieluszko, Jerzy, 203
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 179–80
Position of the United States with Respect to Italy in the Light of the Possibility of Communist Participation in the Government by Legal Means (NSC-1/3), 117, 243n12
Position of the United States with Respect to Italy, The (NSC-1/1 and NSC-1/2), 115–16, 243n11
Predator UAV, 63
Presidential Decision Directives (PDD). See National Security Council Documents
Presidential Findings, xxi, 13, 41
Afghan Finding, 189
applying only to classical covert actions, 96
banning of retroactive, 97, 109, 196
under Bush, George H.W., 213, 216
under Carter, 184–85, 189–92
under Clinton, 219, 220
committees required to know about, 94
and computer hacking, 88
development of use of, 92–98
under Ford, 178
format for, 109–10
and forty-eight hour notice to Congress, 25, 98, 107, 242n28
Lethal Finding, 110
Memoranda of Notification (MON), 93, 104, 185
not needed in DoD operation, 68–70, 88
Omnibus Findings, 184–85
for paramilitary operations, 96–97
place of in planning covert action, 104–7
and plausible deniability, 94, 99
under Reagan, 193, 196, 203, 205, 208, 209, 252n2
as report by president to Congress about covert action, 27, 61, 93–95, 107, 108
“single country/single issue” Findings, 185
Worldwide Findings, 178, 184. See also Hughes-Ryan Amendment to Foreign Assistance Act (1961)
President’s Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence, 152
Principals Committee (PC), 215, 216
Propaganda and Political Action Staff (PPS), 33
propaganda operations, 156, 160, 185, 197
in Afghanistan, 188–89
attitude toward by CIA officers, 4, 33
“black” propaganda, 77–79
in Central America, 190
in Chile, 156–57, 165, 171–72
coinciding with foreign policy objectives, 79
during cold war, 74–75, 118–20
by Communists, 16, 21, 116, 118, 125, 133, 187
compromise of, 13–14, 196
Congress for Cultural Freedom program, 124–25
costs of, 21, 40, 206
and covert action, as part of discipline of, 64, 71, 72–79
against Fidel Castro, 154
future of, 222–23
“gray” propaganda, 75–77
in Italy, 116–20
“Nationalities” program, 74, 187–88
news organizations/journals serving, 72, 73–74, 76–77, 78–79
and political actions, working with, 81–82, 115
in postwar Europe, 122
reaching audience, methods used, 76
against Soviet Union during 1970s, 186–88
against Soviet Union during 1980s, 197–200, 206
and State Department, 74, 79, 106, 118–19, 121, 123, 154
time required for, 72–73
in war on terrorism, 68–69
“white” propaganda, 75
during World War II, 59
Protracted Economic Warfare Against the USSR (NSDD-66), 199
public entities taking on previously covert actions overtly, 32
Qaddafi, Muammar, 209
Radio Free Europe (RFE),
xviii, 5, 74
Radio Liberty (RL), xviii, 5, 74
Radio Moscow, 73
Ramparts magazine, 125
Ranelagh, John, 43
“raw” intelligence, 10
Reagan, Ronald W., 33, 34, 193–211
and Afghanistan, 38–39, 71, 189, 195, 205–7
and Angolan civil war, 209–10
and Cambodia, 210
Carter covert actions continued by, 184, 193
and Central America, 26, 191, 203–5
and congressional oversight of covert action, 55, 95, 196, 204
covert action programs under, 193–94
and EO 12333, 13–15, 40, 67, 69, 195–96
and Grenada, 192
and Iran/Iraq/Jordan, 57, 97
and Lebanon, 207–8
and Nicaragua, 54–56, 203–5
numbers of covert actions under, 26, 131, 193
and oversight of covert action, 100–101, 195–96
and Poland, 4, 83, 188, 194, 201–3
and Pope John Paul II, 201
Presidential Findings under, 193, 196, 203, 205, 208, 209, 252n2
programs of awaiting declassification, 210–11
and review process for covert action, 100–101
security organization under, 194–96
and Soviet Union, 198–99, 200, 203
and Soviet Union, covert action programs against, 194, 197–200
and “special activities,” 40
and Surinam, 197
and terrorism, 207–9
understanding of covert action, xviii, 48, 54, 193, 213
and Yemen, 190
Responsibility for the Conduct, Supervision, and Coordination of Covert Action Operations (NSDM-40), 168
risk involved in covert action, xx, 18–19, 39, 52
assessment of, 96–99, 103–4, 105, 108, 110, 153, 236–37n2
high-risk, low-gain, 92, 226n9
low-risk, 24, 98, 153, 178
Roberto, Holden, 179, 180
Rogers, William P., 175
“rogue elephant” myth about CIA, xvi–xvii, 3–4, 24–27, 34–37, 100, 110–11, 151, 225n2, 232n27
Roosevelt, Kermit, 137–38
Rostow, Walt, 148
Rumsfeld, Donald, 68–69
Rusk, Dean, 158
Rwanda, 51, 52
Saltonstall, Leverett, 92
samizdat, 187
Sandinistas, 54–56, 190–91, 203–4, 205
sarin gas, 86
satellite photographs, use of in intelligence, 10
Saudi Arabia, 189–90
Savimbi, Jonas, 179, 180, 210
Schweizer, Peter, 202
Scope and Pace of Covert Operations (NSC-10/5), 123
Scowcroft, Brent, 215
Senate Armed Forces Committee, 92
Senate Armed Services Committee, 92
Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI), 28, 49, 68, 95, 107, 189
opposing covert action in Grenada, 192
senatorial investigation of CIA. See congressional/senatorial investigations; Pike Committee