“Contras,” 55–56, 203–4
Coordination of Foreign Intelligence Information Measures (NSC-4), 118
Costa Rica, 147
costs of covert actions: in Afghanistan, 71, 189, 206, 207
in Angola, 178, 180
in Chile, 21, 165, 171, 172, 229n20
CIA budget, 4, 34
to “Contras” in Nicaragua, 55, 204
of different types of programs, 40
during Kennedy administration, 34
Kurds, support for, 175
for Polish program, 202–3
relative inexpensiveness, 21, 62–63, 133
counterintelligence/counterespionage (CI/CE), 9, 11–12, 18
counternarcotics programs. See narcotics cartels
Counterterrorism Center, 208–9
covert action, approval and review, 91–111
under Bush, George H.W., 95, 100–101, 215–16
under Bush, George W., 101
under Carter, 95, 99–100, 185
under Clinton, 101–7, 219, 241–42nn22–23
Congress advising on, 95
congressional oversight, 27, 28–32, 91–98, 107–9, 111, 214, 221
congressional oversight, during Carter administration, 95, 184–85, 189, 191–92
congressional oversight, during Reagan administration, 55–56, 95, 196, 204
congressional oversight, during Truman administration, 119
congressional oversight of, lack of during Nixon administration, 168–69, 172
congressional oversight of, reduction of during Kennedy administration, 152
Congress stopping, 94–95, 240n13
development of proposals, 103–7
domestic political considerations in, 106–7
under Eisenhower, 134, 135–36
historical perspective, 98–100
under Kennedy, 152–53
lack of presidential scrutiny, 98, 123, 241–42nn22–23, 247–48n6, 248n7
lack of under Nixon, 168–71
Presidential Findings, 92–98, 109–11
questions to ask when considering, 102–3
under Reagan, xx–xxi, 100–101, 194–96
under Truman, 121, 123–24. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); Department of Defense (DoD); National Security Council (NSC); State Department
covert action, discipline of, 9–10, 12–13, 17–22, 71–89
deception operations, 59, 71–72, 79–81, 200–201, 219–20
definition, 12, 227n3
dissent about, 2–3, 226–27n3
ease of with new technology, 222–23
elements of management of, 47, 236–37n2
future of, 222–23
history of, 23–24
as influence operations, 12–13
information warfare, 11–12, 72, 85–89, 219, 222–23, 238n25, 238–39nn28–29
paramilitary operations, 15–16, 64, 71, 84–85
political action, as element of covert action, 64, 71, 81–84
principles, 50–51
propaganda operations, 64, 71, 72–79
reasons why covert, 16–18
and “special activities,” compared with, 15–16, 40–41, 228nn7–8
covert action, presidential authority over, xv–xvi
and approval and review, 27–28
Bush, George H.W., 216
Carter, 183
with CIA as instrument of policy, 122, 222
and CIA blamed for failure, 34, 173
Clinton, 28, 51–53
with Congress approval/knowledge, 28–31, 221
Eisenhower, 132
and failure, xx, 2, 222
Ford, 178
Johnson, 165
Kennedy, 151–52, 153
Nixon, 167–68, 172
presidents’ opinion of truth of, 26–27
Reagan, 193, 204, 253n32
and restrictions on using DoD, 61
through Presidential Findings, 93–94, 110–11, 178
Truman, 119, 120–21, 126, 128–30
truth of, found by Church Committee, 3, 25–26
covert action, programs: as alternative to military actions, 19–20, 23, 60, 149
bad press about, xix, 226n8, 231n23
under Bush, George H.W., 216
under Carter, 185–92
under Clinton, 51–54, 64–68, 218–19
compromise of, 40, 57, 65, 95, 98, 110, 127, 143–44, 175, 253n30
as defense against Soviet Union, 41–42, 232–33n35
and domestic media, 13–14
under Eisenhower, 131–49
financing of, 14–15, 94–95
under Ford, 178–81
and foreign policy initiatives, 49–50, 51–54, 56–57, 79, 102–3, 111
as instrument of statecraft, 1–2, 19–22, 38, 47
under Johnson, 159–65
under Kennedy, 151–59
measure of success of, 4–7
under Nixon, 167–77
peacetime versus wartime, 60–61, 68
under Reagan, 197–211
under Reagan, amount of, 26, 131, 193, 241n22
summary of post–World War II programs, xviii–xix, 226n9
technologies for, 66, 236n14
against terrorism, 11–12, 87–89, 207–9, 214, 219–20, 238–39nn28–29
during Truman era, 113–29
during World War II, 59, 79, 80, 132. See also costs of covert actions; myths of covert action by CIA; paramilitary operations; pitfalls of covert action; political action programs; under countries; under presidents
Covert Action Planning Group (CAPG), 104
Covert Action Policy Approval and Coordination Procedures (NSDD-159), 101, 196
Crisis Pre-Planning Group, 197
Cuba: Bay of Pigs operation, 25, 49, 98, 99, 140, 144, 152, 154–55, 159
and Eisenhower, 146–47
and El Salvador, 203
involvement in Angola, 178–80
and Kennedy, 154–56
and Yemen, 189
Cuban missile crisis, 7
Cutler, Robert, 136
cyberterrorism, 86–89
Deaver, Michael, 203
deception operations, 71–72, 79–81
faulty equipment to hostile governments, 200–201, 219–20
by Soviet Union, 81, 238n18
during World War II, 59, 79, 80, 237n17
“Deep Throat,” 11
Defense Intelligence Agency, 68
Department of Defense (DoD): congressional oversight of, 30
differences with Department of State during Eisenhower administration, 133
expense of operations, 63, 64
Iran hostage rescue operation as action of, 45
lack of authority to undertake covert action, 61, 67, 122
part played in approval and review of covert action, 135–36, 159, 168, 177, 184, 187, 215, 217
part played in covert action, 54, 60
reasons not assigned covert action missions, 59–62, 68. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) advantages over Department of Defense (DoD) in covert action
Department of State. See State Department
Deputies Committee (DC), 215
Desert One. See Iranian hostage rescue operation
Deutch, John, 59, 64–67, 69, 235n11
Diem, Ngo Dinh, 43–44
Directorate of Operations (DO), xxi, xxiii, 67, 100, 105, 172, 186
“dirty tricks,” covert action as, 38
disinformation programs, xvii, 77–79, 198
Dominican Republic, 147, 157–58, 160
Dornan, “B-1 Bob,” 204
Double Cross operation, 80
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), 11, 106
Dulles, Allen, 121, 136, 145, 146, 148, 152, 154–55
Dulles, John Foster, 131, 138, 145
Eagle Claw operation. See Iranian hostage rescue operation
Egypt, 149
Eisenhower, Dwight D., xviii, 26, 131–49
in Africa, 145–46
and assassination plans, 132, 145–48, 246–47n34, 247n38
and covert action as alternative to war, 20, 149
and covert action programs set in place during Truman’s time, 128–29
and Cuba, 146–47
and Dominican Republic, 147
and Guatemala, 133, 134, 138–40
and Indonesia, 83, 141–44, 146, 149
and Iran, 137–38, 140
and Japan, 140–41
and Middle East, 148–49
myth of not being in control of foreign policy, 131
security organization under, 134–37
and Tibet, 144–45
understanding of covert action, 48, 132
El Salvador, covert action in, 190–91, 203
Erskine, Graves B., 136
Ethiopia, 191
European labor unions, assistance to, xviii–xix, 5, 114, 120, 122
Executive Orders: EO 11905 (Ford banning assassinations), 43, 177–78, 208
EO 12036, 184
EO 12333 (1981), 40, 67, 69
EO 12333 (1981), tenets of covert action in, 13–15, 195–96. See also National Security Council Documents
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 11
Findings. See Presidential Findings 5412 Committee, 135–37, 145, 146, 159
dismantling of, 151–52
Ford, Gerald R., 24, 28, 177–81
and Angolan civil war, 93, 178–80
banning assassinations of foreign leaders, 43, 178, 208
classified covert action program, 180–81
and covert action, 177–81
and Kurds, 176
security organization under, 177–78
Foreign Affairs journal, 76
Foreign Assistance Act (1961), 29
foreign policy initiatives: elements of, 49–50
tying in with covert action programs, 51–54, 56–57, 79, 102–3, 111. See also Communism, perceived threat of
Forrestal, James, 115, 118–19
40 Committee, 168–72, 177
France, CIA counter-program to communism in, 6, 20, 114, 243–44n20
Franklin, Benjamin, 23
Freedom of Information Act (1996), xxiii
Frei, Eduardo, 156, 165
Gaddis, John Lewis, 139, 157
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 158
Gandhi, Indira, xvii, 78
Gates, Robert M., 71, 74, 104, 178, 183, 198, 205, 206, 215
Gati, Tobi, 49
Gilpatrick, Roswell, 152
Godson, Roy, 40, 50, 79, 81
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 78
Graham, Bob, 68
Gray, Gordon, 147, 158
“gray” propaganda, 75–77
Grenada, 191–92
Guatemala: and 1954 removal of Arbenz, 83, 127, 133, 134, 138–40, 246n18
and Bay of Pigs operation, 154
tragic results of covert action in, 5, 38–39, 139–40
Guevara, Che, xix, 5, 140
Gulf War: and CIA paramilitary training programs, 85
deception operation during, 79
Guzman, Abimael, xix, 5
Habré, Hissène, 209
hacking. See cyberterrorism
Haig, Alexander, 202
Haiti, 51
Halperin, Morton, 30
Halpern, Samuel, 49
Harvey, Bill, 148
Helms, Richard M., 42, 169, 172
Hezbollah, 207–8
Hillenkoetter, Roscoe, 31–32
Hilsman, Roger, 83, 141, 238n20
Hinchey Committee/Report, 44, 173
Hitchens, Christopher, 29–30
Ho Chi Minh, 143
Hoover, Herbert, Jr., 145
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (HPSCI), 5, 28, 55, 94, 95, 107, 175, 176, 189, 204. See also Pike Committee
Houston, Lawrence R., 31–32
Hughes-Ryan Amendment to Foreign Assistance Act (1961), 29–30, 99, 157, 178
immediate effects of, 93–94, 196
replacement by Intelligence Authorization Act (1991), 97–98
revisions of, 96–97. See also Presidential Findings
Hukbalahap Rebellion, Philippines, 128
human rights, 186, 214
Hunt, Howard, 42
Hussein, Sadam, 57, 79, 176
Hussein I (King of Jordan), 57
IAFEATURE program. See Angola India, and KGB disinformation program, 77, 78, 198
Indochina, 45, 210
Laos, 20–21, 62, 85, 156, 238n23
Vietnam, xxiii, 21, 43–44, 92, 141, 143, 156, 233n40
Indonesia, 83, 141–44, 146, 149, 160
information warfare, 72, 85–89, 238n25
and Aum Shinrikyo, 86–87
hacking as tool for intelligence, 87–89, 238–39nn28–29
increased use of in future, 222–23
against terrorists, 11–12, 219. See also cyberterrorism
Intelligence Authorization Act (1991), 14–15, 32, 37, 41, 69, 97–98, 100, 196
intelligence collection/analysis, 9, 10–11, 227n2
Intelligence Oversight Act (1980), 32, 37, 94, 97
Intelligence Oversight Act (1988), 96–97
intelligence profession, 9–13, 18–22
counterintelligence/counterespionage (CI/CE) in, 9, 11–12, 18
covert action, as discipline within, 9–10, 12–13, 17–22, 32–34
intelligence collection/analysis component of, 9, 10–11, 17–18. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Intelligence Requirements/National Needs Process (PDD-35), 218
Interagency Working Group/Committee for Covert Action (IWG), xxii, 105–6, 216–17
international law, 19, 61, 62, 230–231n18
International Monetary Fund, 199
international organized crime, 214
Iran: and 1953 overthrow of government, 2, 5, 6–7, 38–39, 83, 131, 133, 137–38, 139, 140, 246n13
during Carter administration, 184
escape of hostages in, 109, 184
and Kurdish rebellion, 173, 174–77
during Nixon administration, 173–77
and Reagan administration, 57, 97
and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, 16–17
and Soviet missile test ranges, 27
during Truman era, 6–7, 127
Iran-Contra scandal, 15, 97, 104, 196, 240n12
beginnings of, 54, 204, 205
congressional investigation of, 30–31
lack of review process for, 99–100
myth of being CIA rogue covert action, 34–37, 232n27
Iranian hostage rescue operation, 45, 98–99, 184, 207, 235n4
covert action during Nixon administration, 173
deception operation during 1991 war in, 79
and Kurdish rebellion, 173, 174–77
support for during Reagan administration, 57
Isenberg, David, 154–55
Israel, and Iran, 16–17, 175
Italian Communist Party (PCI), 83, 116, 117, 120, 158, 159–60
Italy: CIA counter-program to communists in, 6, 20, 42, 83, 117–20, 158–60, 238nn20–21
covert political actions in, 6, 83, 115–20, 159–65, 238nn20–21
fears of Communist takeover in after World War II, 115–20
Jagan, Chedi, 157
Jandal, Shafik, 203
Japan: and Aum Shinrikyo, 86–87
covert political actions in, 6, 83, 140–41
Japanese Liberal Democratic Party, 140–41
Jefferson, Thomas, 28, 31
John Paul II, 188, 201
Johnson, Loch K., 72, 82, 185
Johnson, Lyndon B., 26, 53, 159–65
and British Guyana, 160
and Chile, 21, 156, 160, 165, 229n20
and Dominican Republic, 160
and Indonesia, 160
and Japan, 140
security organization under, 159
Johnson, U. Alexis, 83, 141, 156, 163–64, 238n20
journals, use of for “gray” propaganda, 76–77
Karabell, Zachary, 137
Kasten, Robert, 167
Kennan, George F., 113, 115, 116, 118, 121
Kennedy, John F., xviii, 151–59
assassination of, myth of CIA involvement in, xvii, 78
and assassination plans for foreign leaders, 147–48, 155–56, 233n40, 248n12
and Bay of Pigs operation, 25, 49, 98, 99, 140, 144, 152, 154–55, 159
and British Guyana, 157
and Chile, 21, 156–57, 248–49n14
congressional oversight of covert action, reduction of by, 98, 152
costs of covert actions during administration of, 34
and Cuba, other covert action programs in, 155–56
and Cuban missile crisis, 7
and direct leadership of covert action, 151–53
and Dominican Republic, 157–58
and Eisenhower covert action programs, 149
and Italy, 158
and Japan, 83, 140
and Laos, 20–21
security organization under, 151–53, 169
and South Vietnam coup, 43–44, 233n40
and Tibet, 158
Kennedy, Robert F., 49, 152, 169
KGB (Komitet Gozudarstevennoye Bezopasnosti), 127
disinformation programs against United States, xvii, 77–78, 198, 225n5
Trust, The, deception program, 81, 238n18
Khmer Rouge (KR), 210
Kissinger, Henry A., 44, 167–77, 248n8
and Angolan civil war, 179–80
and positions held in Nixon administration, 168
understanding of covert action, 48
Komitet Gozudarstevennoye Bezopasnosti (KGB). See KGB (Komitet Gozudarstevennoye Bezopasnosti)
Kurds, 48, 173, 174–77
Lake, Anthony, 48, 52
Lansdale, Edward, 128
Laos, 20–21, 62, 85, 156, 238n23
Lebanon, 148; terrorist acts in against U.S., 207–8, 254nn41–42
legal aspects of covert action, 13–17, 60–61, 122, 123
dissent about legality of, 16
illegality of, 18–19
illegality of under international law, 19, 31–32, 230–31n18
undemocratic, 19, 23
legal scrutiny of covert actions, 35–36, 105, 111, 196
Lethal Finding, 110
Liberal Democratic Party, Japan, 83
Libya, 209
Love, Richard A., 87
Lovett, Robert, 121
Lowenthal, Mark, 5, 60
Lumumba, Patrice, 43, 145–46, 148, 245n4, 246–47n34
Lymnitzer, Lyman, 152
Madison, James, 31
Magsaysay, Ramón, 128
Mao Tse-Dong, 143
Marshall, George C., 115, 121
Marshall Plan, 50, 119, 121
Masjumi Party, Indonesia, 141
McCarthyism, 125
McCone, John, 152
McNamara, Robert S., 151