evolution, 222; Big Bang theory and, 190; Darwin and, 31, 70, 79, 89–90, 167, 270n33, 274n97; Dawkins and, 70; empiricism and, 31, 71; epistemologies and, 167, 174–75, 180; eugenics and, 89–90, 92, 103; extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) and, 60, 146; Gallup Poll on, 190; Gould and, 91, 215; human dignity and, 8; Huxley and, 97, 274n97; Kuhn and, 10, 39–41; meaning of life and, 149; moral issues and, 8, 148–49, 167, 215; natural selection and, 16, 89; Pascal’s Wager and, 197; present and future of science and, 206; reliable knowledge and, 6, 129, 206; religion and, 70, 149, 155, 167, 197, 217–18; Station for Experimental Evolution and, 92, 272n71; survival of fittest and, 78, 89; traditionalists and, 59; values and, 148–49
experience, 265n117, 266n130; brain functions and, 205; Comte and, 64; cumulative, 198; dental floss and, 124–25; depression and, 5–6, 104–7, 110, 112, 114; empiricism and, 26, 30, 38; epistemologies and, 50–51, 169, 172–80; eugenics and, 96; experts and, 131–32, 173, 278n183; James and, 72; observation and, 26, 40, 64, 72, 125, 134, 178, 246; policy assessments and, 198; present and future of science and, 204, 206; reason and, 182; reliable knowledge and, 131–34; science studies and, 40; skepticism and, 183; verification through, 26
experiments: canceled errors and, 220; Comte and, 64; confirmation and, 33–35, 103, 219, 233; controlled, 291n41; Duhem and, 34, 37, 260n45, 261n56, 261n58; empiricism and, 26, 33–39; ensuring desired results of, 11; epistemologies and, 53, 174; eugenics and, 92, 103; fabricated data and, 11; Harvard Case Studies in Experimental Science and, 39; incremental learning and, 10; industry influence and, 291n41; laws and, 34, 260n45; Limited Energy Theory and, 80; observation and, 26, 34, 64, 187, 234, 261n58; policy assessments and, 198; replication of, 11–12, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 242–43, 290n23; speed of light and, 34; Stanford prison, 204, 231–32, 290n23; Station for Experimental Evolution and, 272n71; use of technology and, 219
experts, 272n62; blanket trust and, 255; climate change and, 1; community of, 4, 7, 13, 58, 60–61, 128, 130, 142–43, 173, 243, 259n33, 260n39, 266n136, 267n3, 275n109; conflict of interest and, 65; consensus and, 4, 6–7, 12–13, 129, 141–43, 149, 192, 222–23, 234, 249, 275n109; corrupt practices and, 243; credentials and, 131–32, 221–22, 247; democracy and, 6; diversity and, 4, 7, 13, 132, 246; empiricism and, 267n3; endorsements and, 182; epistemologies and, 56–58, 171, 173, 177; eugenics and, 88, 275n109; evidence and, 6, 63, 65, 131, 142, 221, 246, 263n88, 267n3, 270n40; exclusive domains of, 60–61; experience and, 131–32, 173, 278n183; indigenous, 61–62, 265n124; informed trust and, 60–61; knowledge traditions and, 63; lay people and, 61–62, 132, 223, 267n3, 279n192; objectivity and, 4; Pascal’s Wager and, 141–43; peer review and, 7, 9, 182, 221, 247, 266n136; policy assessments and, 192–96, 200, 224; and present and future of science, 202; reaching outside domain of, 4, 60–61, 131, 222, 263n88, 278n183; reliable knowledge and, 128–32; reproduction of authority and, 278n179; social authority and, 71; society’s need for, 247; statistical clusters and, 281n14; values and, 149; vicious circularity of, 9, 12, 182, 221–22
extended evolutionary synthesis (EES), 60, 146, 265n113
extrasensory perception (ESP), 203, 231
Fabri, Honoré, 187–89
Facing Up (Weinberg), 269n19
facsimile science, 240–41, 292n49
faith, 36, 56, 66, 68, 168, 178, 183
fake news, 245
fallibilism, 3
falsehoods: alternative facts and, 245; birth control data and, 115, 140; circularity and, 9, 181–82, 185, 221–22; critical positivity ratio and, 234–35; disinformation and, 62, 67, 218, 240, 245, 268n13; empiricism and, 24–27, 37; evidence and, 7, 37, 46, 70, 115, 124, 142, 153; fake news and, 245; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; Ioannidis paper on, 207; James and, 72; journals and, 204–6, 293n55; misinformation and, 1, 65–67, 129, 142, 281n3, 289n7, 290n26; observation and, 24, 27; Pascal’s Wager and, 142; p-hacking and, 207, 229; and present and future of science, 207, 209–10; rejection of, 181; replication issues and, 11–13, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 289n17, 290n23; retractions and, 12–13, 203, 206, 228–29, 233–37, 247, 291n37, 292n43; science studies and, 44–47; values and, 152–53, 156–58, 282n23
falsifiability, 3, 26
Fang, Ferric C., 235
fascism, 167–68
Fausto-Sterling, Anne, 263n89
feeblemindedness, 87–88, 93, 272n75
feminism: birth control and, 109; epistemologies and, 49–51, 54–55, 175–76; eugenics and, 273n78; Haraway and, 175, 263n89; Harding and, 50–54, 144, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92; inclusion and, 14, 51, 59; Limited Energy Theory and, 5, 7, 76–80, 89, 95, 128, 136, 249, 264n97, 270n40, 273n78; Longino and, 4, 31, 50–55, 57, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 264n100; objectivity and, 175–76; ontological relativism and, 263n89; philosophy and, 4, 31, 50–54–55, 57, 144, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92, 264n100; rational science and, 279n192; reliable knowledge and, 136; social epistemology and, 49–51, 54–55
fertility, 5, 76–77, 135
Festinger, Leon, 204
fetishism, 6–7, 134, 139, 250
Feyerabend, Paul, 46–48, 51
First Immune, 243
Fleck, Ludwik, 3, 28–32, 39–41, 260n39, 261n69
fluoridation, 70
food, 66, 73, 121, 180, 195, 219, 251, 274n97
fossil fuels. See petroleum industry
Foucault, Léon, 34–35
Framatone, 241
fraud, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37
free market, 1, 149
Friedman, Harris, 234
funding, 106; competition for, 280n205, 292n46; extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) and, 60; full disclosure of, 243, 269n14; government, 168, 173, 282n23; industry, 13, 66, 73, 213, 239, 266n133, 292n44; present and future of science and, 202, 208, 210; publication rates and, 240
Galileo, 10, 31, 187–89, 223, 286n12
Galton, Francis, 89–91, 96, 98
Garber, Marjorie, 131
GcMAF, 243
Genesis, Bible book of, 158
Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, The (Fleck), 29
Geneticists’ Manifesto (Muller), 98–100, 146
genetics, 99, 165, 180, 206
Gibbs, J. Willard, 260n40
Gilbert, Scott, 263n89
gingivitis, 121–23, 126, 134
global warming, 1, 229–30, 293n3
God: Creation and, 8, 16–17, 156, 158; creationism and, 16–17, 148, 158; deepening appreciation for, 152; end times and, 282n26; existence of, 197; glory of, 158; materialism and, 167; moral issues and, 167; Pascal’s Wager and, 197; Pope Francis and, 64; Pope Pius XI and, 273n78; theology and, 20–21, 70, 150, 228, 287n6; values and, 148, 152, 156, 158
Goethe, 258n12
Gondwana, 87
Goonatilake, Susantha, 62
Gould, Stephen Jay, 91, 215
Grant, Madison, 91–92
greenhouse gases, 1, 15, 65, 134, 230
Gross, Paul, 51, 54, 263n91
Group on Best Practices in Science (BPS), 202, 206
Guerlac, Henry, 169
gum disease, 119, 125
Guterres, António, 17
gynecologists, 111, 128, 250
Haber, Fritz, 166
Haldane, J.B.S., 97–98, 138, 274n92
Hall, G. Stanley, 80
Haraway, Donna, 175, 263n89
Hardie, Jeremy, 126
Harding, Sandra, 50–54, 144, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92
Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science, 39
Haydn, Joseph, 158
heart disease, 65, 123, 250–51
Hedgehog Review, 129
Heilbron, John, 151
Hempel, Carl, 25
Hereditary Genius (Galton), 90
heredity, 90, 92, 94, 96–98, 100, 103, 218
Higher Superstitions: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science (Gross and Levitt), 54, 263n91
Hill, Austin Bradford, 234
History of Science Society, 169
Hitler, Adolf, 88, 92
HIV-AIDS, 64, 71, 146, 266n130, 275n113
hoaxes, 119, 245, 291n37, 293n3, 293n55
Hofstadter, Richard, 86, 165
holism, 35, 38
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 88, 92
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr., 78
honor societies, 19
House Committee on Un-American Activities, 171
Hubbard, Ruth, 263n89
Hujoel, Philippe, 123
Hume, David, 22, 25, 182
humility, 6–7, 36, 127, 138–39
Huxley, Julian, 97, 274n92, 274n97
hypotheses, 280n205; AIDS and, 146; birth control and, 116; continental drift and, 82–86; empiricism and, 26, 33–36; epistemologies and, 55, 185; induction and, 182–83; null, 115–16, 211; observation and, 25, 83, 86; policy assessments and, 195–99; science studies and, 46; tests and, 25, 33–35, 84, 203, 253
Iafolla, Tim, 118
ICBMs, 169
immigrants, 89–97, 273n85
incommensurability, 10, 40–41, 43, 186, 190
indigenous experts, 61–62, 265n124
induction: continental drift and, 250; Hume and, 25, 182; hypotheses and, 182–83; observation and, 25–27, 34, 83, 185; philosophy and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 185, 190
industry funding, 13, 66, 73, 208, 210, 239, 266n133, 292n44
informed trust, 4, 60
Inglis, Bob, 155–56
Inhofe, James, 293n3
intelligence, 90, 96–97, 100–101, 273n78
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 17, 59, 194, 225–26, 287n3
Investigation vs. Propagandism (Chamberlin), 85
Ioannidis, John, 207
IQ tests, 96–97
Jacobi, Mary Putnam, 5, 79–80, 136, 249
James, William, 72
Jasanoff, Sheila, 70, 267n3
Jennings, Herbert Spencer, 102–4, 274n99
Jews, 91, 96, 156–57
Johnson-Read Immigration Restriction Act, 91
journals: bad research and, 11, 240–41; bias and, 209, 235, 263n91; conservative, 263n91; dental floss and, 119; empiricism and, 32; English-language, 240; epistemologies and, 58; ESP and, 203; eugenics and, 275n109; everyday trust and, 169; experts and, 220–21, 247, 266n136; extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) and, 60; fake academia and, 243; false papers in, 203–7, 231, 237, 293n55; for-profit, 240; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; reliable knowledge and, 131–33, 136; replication issues and, 204–7, 228, 242–43, 290n23; retractions and, 203, 206, 228, 235, 237–38, 247, 291n37, 292n43; system values and, 209
Jussim, Lee, 202
Kahneman, Daniel, 203
Keller, Evelyn Fox, 263n89
Kevles, Daniel, 94, 273n80, 273n85
Knorr-Cetina, Karin, 45
Korean War, 170
Kowarsch, Martin, 10–12, 191–201, 223–28
Kranzberg, Melvin, 169
Krosnick, Jon, 73, 134; evidence and, 204, 209–10, 227–33, 236–38; Group on Best Practices in Science (BPS) and, 202, 206; Oreskes and, 202, 211, 228–44, 267n106; and present and future of science, 202–11; psychology and, 11, 203–5, 208, 232–34; replication crisis and, 12, 204–7, 226, 230, 234, 237, 242–43; scientific method and, 11, 202, 204, 209–10
Kuhn, Thomas, 4, 10, 32, 39–43, 141, 186–87, 261n65, 261n66, 261n69
Lakatos, Imre, 41, 46
Lamarckianism, 92, 272n70
Lange, Marc, 9–12, 181–90, 221–23
Language, Truth and Logic (Ayer), 25
Latour, Bruno, 23, 45, 48–49, 70–71, 247, 259n24, 268n7
Laudan, Larry, 74, 269n17
Laughlin, Harry, 88–89, 93–94, 272n62
law of reversion to the mediocre, 90–91
lay people, 61–62, 132, 223, 267n3, 279n192
Le Cazre, Pierre, 187–89
Lehrer, Jonah, 203–4
Levitt, Norman, 51, 54, 263n91
liberals, 145, 199, 223, 259n31, 263n91
Libertarians, 130, 142, 153, 155
liberty, 11, 198, 223, 283n30
Limbaugh, Rush, 282n23
Limited Energy Theory: bias and, 249; consensus and, 128; deduction and, 76, 79, 95, 135; eugenics and, 273n78; experiments and, 80; higher education for women and, 76–80, 135, 138, 226, 270n40; Jacobi and, 5, 79–80, 136, 249; moral issues and, 79; Pascal’s Wager and, 140–41; religion and, 79; truth and, 79; values and, 136; women and, 5, 7, 76–80, 89, 95, 128, 136, 249, 264n97, 270n40, 273n78
Lincoln, Abraham, 19
Lindee, Susan, 9, 163–80, 215–21
Longino, Helen, 4, 31, 50–55, 57, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 264n100
Longwell, Chester, 81
Luckman, Thomas, 262n70
Luria, Salvador, 172
Lyell, Charles, 85
Macedo, Stephen, 1–14
Malthus, Thomas, 89, 94
Mansfield, Harvey C., 257n4
“Many Psychology Findings Not as Strong as Claimed, Study Says” (New York Times), 205
Markowitz, Gerald, 67
Marxism, 20, 28–29
McCain, John R., 111–12
McCarthy, Joseph, 171
Mead, Margaret, 97
measles, 16
Mendel, Gregor, 92
menstruation, 78–80
Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change, 10
Merchants of Doubt (Oreskes and Conway), 13, 130, 153, 224, 245–46, 292n44
Merton, Robert, 43, 150–51, 155
metaphysics, 20–22
military, 170–73, 179, 216
Millennium Development Goals, 17
Miller, Art, 204–5
Miller, Ken, 148
misinformation, 1, 65–67, 129, 142, 281n3, 289n7, 290n26
MIT, 172
mood changes, 107, 109, 112, 114
moral issues: designing bombs and, 9; diversity and, 264n100; epistemologies and, 145, 164–71, 177; eugenics and, 61, 104; evolution and, 8, 148–49, 167, 215; God and, 167; Limited Energy Theory and, 79; normative questions and, 63; policy assessments and, 226, 287n5; positive knowledge and, 21; public policy and, 147–49; purity and, 9, 11, 150, 168, 198, 215, 284n10; reliable knowledge and, 130, 139; religion and, 7, 21, 79, 157, 167, 215; scientific imperatives and, 279n192; weapons and, 166–70, 177, 179, 216
Morgan, T. H., 104
Mormons, 157
“Most Psychology Findings Cannot Be Replicated” (New York Times), 205
Muller, Hermann, 97–99, 138, 274n90, 274n92, 274n97
mumps, 16
Murray, Thomas E., 285n13
NASA, 69
natalism, 94–95
National Bioethics Advisory Commission, 143
National Institutes of Health, 118
nationalism, 11, 168, 176, 198
National Science Foundation, 208
natural selection, 16, 89
Nature journal, 205, 242
nature/nurture debates, 95–96, 103
Nazis, 5, 88, 91–94, 99
Needham, Joseph, 98
Neptunist school, 83
Nestle, Miriam, 67
Neumann, John von, 60–61
Neurath, Otto, 25
Newton, Isaac, 31–32, 35, 51, 73, 168–69, 232, 264n92
New York Times, 118–21, 126, 132, 203, 205, 243
Noakes, David, 243
Nobel Prize, 67, 98, 104, 166, 174, 203, 263n88, 269n19
Nordic race, 91, 97
Nosek, Brian, 205
nuclear energy, 60–61, 165, 169, 177, 195, 215, 241, 279n192
null results, 115–16, 211
nutrition, 67, 73, 80, 96, 119, 124, 134, 138, 268n13, 277n152
Obama, Barack, 191–92
obesity, 65
objectivity: conventional notions of, 6; diversity and, 4; Edinburgh school and, 46; epistemologies and, 50–54, 58–59; experts and,
4; feminism and, 175–76; impartiality and, 263n91; Merton on, 150–51; policy assessments and, 192, 196–97; Popper and, 259n33; questioning, 150; as regulative ideal, 267n3; reliable knowledge and, 132; science studies and, 46–47; scientific writing styles and, 154; Tyson and, 263n91
observation: accuracy and, 184, 186; confirmation and, 184; continental drift and, 82–83, 86; deduction and, 25; empiricism and, 24–27, 30, 32, 34; epistemologies and, 52; experience and, 26, 40, 64, 72, 125, 134, 178, 246; experiments and, 26, 34, 64, 187, 234, 261n58; falsehoods and, 24, 27; as first stage of research, 183; Galileo and, 187–89; generalizations and, 27, 185; hypotheses and, 25, 83, 86; incomplete nature of, 234; induction and, 25–27, 34, 83, 185; interpretation and, 30, 32, 86, 186, 248, 261n58; logical order of, 183–85; philosophy and, 3; positive knowledge and, 21–23; and present and future of science, 202, 204, 209; qualified, 184; science studies and, 40, 46, 48; scientific reasoning and, 21; scientific theories and, 22–27, 34, 64, 82, 86, 96, 184, 186–87, 261n58; skepticism and, 26, 183–84; speculation and, 1, 213, 235–36; theory-ladenness of, 261n58; truth and, 19, 21, 24, 74; verification and, 3, 24–27, 40