oceanography, 151, 216, 266n136
opioid abuse, 123
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 171–72
Oreskes, Naomi: Edenhofer and, 192–200, 223–28; Kowarsch and, 192–200, 223–28; Krosnick and, 202, 211, 228–44, 265n106; Lange and, 181–86, 221–23; Lindee and, 173–74, 177–79, 215–21; Macedo and, 2–13; Merchants of Doubt and, 13, 130, 153, 224, 245–46, 292n44
Origin of Continents and Oceans (Wegener), 82–83
Origin of Species (Darwin), 31
Outside magazine, 250–55
Oxford Eugenics Society, 97
oxybenzone, 250, 294n10, 294n13
Papal Encyclical on Climate Change, 228
Paris Agreement, 287n3
Pascal, Blaise, 36
Pascal’s Wager: birth control and, 104–17; eugenics and, 140–41; existence of God and, 197; experts and, 141–43; falsehoods and, 142; Kuhn and, 141; Limited Energy Theory and, 140–41; policy assessments and, 193–97; stakes of error and, 7
Passing of the Great Race, The (Grant), 91–92
patients: AIDS crisis and, 275n113; birth control and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117, 250; dental floss and, 122–25; depression and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; eugenics and, 88, 275n113; information of, 6, 61, 122, 130–31, 135; self-reporting and, 108, 130, 275n113
Pauling, Linus, 174, 284n1
Pearson, Karl, 102
peer review: consensus and, 130–31; empiricism and, 32; epistemologies and, 53, 58; experts and, 7, 9, 182, 221, 247, 266n136; journals and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; reliable knowledge and, 130–31; revisions and, 247
Pence, Mike, 16
people of color, 51, 53, 61, 91, 98, 273n85
performances, 71, 268n5, 268n7
periodontal disease, 123, 125–26
pertussis, 16
pesticides, 66, 224, 239, 245
petroleum industry: air pollution and, 194; climate change and, 4, 17–18, 63, 65, 67, 142, 225; environmentalism and, 239; greenhouse gases and, 65; misinformation and, 1, 67; paid studies and, 210, 213, 240–41; political pressure by, 17; reliable knowledge and, 129–30; Trump and, 194; truth and, 4
p-hacking, 207, 229
philosophy: absolutism and, 46, 48; Bacon and, 22, 33; Comte and, 20–25, 29, 42, 48, 64, 182, 259n25; Descartes and, 29, 183; Dewey and, 10, 197–99; Douglas and, 145; Duhem and, 4, 32–39, 48, 190, 260n40, 260n47, 261n58; epistemologies and, 54–55, 164, 167, 171–72; feminist, 4, 31, 49–57, 79, 109, 136, 144, 175–76, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92, 264n100, 273n78, 279n192; Feyerabend and, 46–48, 51; Harding and, 50–54, 144, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92; Hume and, 22, 25, 182; incommensurability and, 10, 40–41, 43, 186, 190; induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 184–85, 190; Kuhn and, 4, 10, 32, 39–43, 141, 186–87, 261n65, 261n66, 261n69; Lange and, 9; Latour and, 23, 45, 48–49, 70–71, 247, 259n24, 268n7; limitations of, 255; Longino and, 4, 31, 50–55, 57, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 264n100; Marx and, 20, 28–29; nature of understanding and, 2–3; observation and, 3; Popper and, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48, 72, 259n31, 259n33; and present and future of science, 202; Quine and, 4, 25, 32, 37–39, 41, 43, 190, 261n58; relativism and, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5; science studies and, 19; scientific method and, 2–3, 29, 46, 55, 197, 211, 276n137; teleology and, 20–21, 23; use of mechanism and, 276n137
plaque, 120, 122–23, 125, 277n162
plate tectonics, 39, 69–70, 74, 81, 86, 173, 280n203
Plato, 249
PLOS One journal, 207
polar vortex, 1
policy assessments: consensus and, 10, 192; creating uncertainty and, 132–33; Dewey and, 197–99; diversity and, 195, 200, 223–24; economic issues and, 191–93, 199; environmentalism and, 225; ethics and, 193, 196–200; EU studies and, 195; evidence and, 192, 195, 226; experience and, 198; experiments and, 198; experts and, 192–96, 200, 224; hypotheses and, 195–99; ineffective decisions on, 196; objectivity and, 192, 196–97; Pascal’s Wager and, 193–97; scientific method and, 197; skepticism and, 192–93, 287n5; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; technology and, 193, 195; Trump and, 191–92, 194; values and, 147, 192–93, 196–201
Pollard, Ernest, 170–72, 285n13
Polynesians, 62
Pope Francis, 64, 157–58, 228
Pope Pius XI, 273n78
Popper, Karl, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48, 72, 244, 259n31, 259n33
positive knowledge: Comte and, 20–23; doctrine and, 20; economic issues and, 263n87; honor societies and, 19; moral issues and, 21; observation and, 21–23; religion and, 20–23; scientific method and, 20; truth and, 21, 249
positivism, 20–30, 46, 259n24, 259n26
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 10
Poynter.org, 119
Princeton University, 171–72, 222
Principia Mathematica (Newton), 31, 51, 264n92
Probstein, Ronald F., 172
Proctor, Robert, 67
progestin, 113
Prothero, Stephen, 156–57
Prozac, 114
psychiatrists, 109–12, 128
psychologists, 112, 128, 177, 180, 203–5, 208, 232–34, 289n17
Ptolemaic system, 19, 72
PubMed, 112, 235
Puritans, 151
purity, 9, 11, 150, 168, 198, 215, 284n10
quantum mechanics, 30, 41
Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation, The (Jacobi), 79–80
Quine, Willard Van Orman, 4, 25, 32, 37–39, 41, 43, 190, 261n58
racism: eugenics and, 88–100; immigrants and, 89–97, 273n85; Nazis and, 5, 88, 91–94, 99; Nordic race and, 91, 97; people of color and, 51, 53, 61, 91, 98, 273n85; racial degeneration and, 88, 91, 97; sterilization and, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97
randomized trials, 6, 120, 123–24, 126, 134, 278n166
rationalism, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4
refutation, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33
Reid, Harry Fielding, 82–83
relativism, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5
relativity, 28, 39, 218, 232–33
reliable knowledge: bias and, 135; collective activity and, 139; consensus and, 127–33; diversity and, 132, 136–37; economic issues and, 130, 133; epistemologies and, 165; evidence and, 128, 131, 133–36, 138, 233; evolution and, 6, 129; experience and, 131–34; experts and, 128–32; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; humility and, 138–39; informed dissent and, 128; journals and, 131–33, 136; moral issues and, 130, 139; objectivity and, 132; petroleum industry and, 129–30; scientific method and, 127, 133–35, 139; scientific theories and, 135–37; skepticism and, 127, 139; truth and, 131, 137, 139; vaccinations and, 129, 219; values and, 136–38
religion: Bible and, 148, 158, 282n26; Catholicism and, 64, 148, 151, 156–58, 228, 273n78, 287n5; Christians and, 8, 21, 129, 148–49, 153, 155, 157, 228, 273n78, 282n26; climate science and, 149, 155–58, 217–18, 227–28; Comte and, 20; consensus and, 228; Creation and, 8, 16–17, 156, 158; creationism and, 16–17, 158, 179, 182; diversity from, 14; doctrine and, 150; empiricism and, 24, 30; end times and, 282n26; ethics and, 44, 158, 227; evolution and, 70, 149, 155, 167, 197, 217–18; God and, 16–17, 64, 148, 152, 156, 158, 167, 197, 273n78, 282n26; Jews and, 91, 96, 156–57; Limited Energy Theory and, 79; moral issues and, 7, 21, 79, 157, 167, 215; Mormons and, 157; Pascal’s Wager and, 197; Pence and, 16; positive knowledge and, 20–23; Protestants and, 156; Puritans and, 151; Republicans and, 16–17; science and, 2, 7, 14, 16, 20–21, 24, 30, 44, 70, 74, 79, 147–50, 155, 158, 167, 197, 215, 217, 227–28, 258n12, 267n3; science studies and, 44; Ten Commandments and, 156–57; theology and, 20–21, 70, 150, 228, 287n6; vaccinations and, 63; values and, 2, 7, 147–50, 155–58, 167, 258n12
replication issues, 11–12, 204–7, 226, 230, 234, 237, 240–41, 289n13, 289n17, 290n23
Republicans, 293n3; broken government
and, 203; education and, 72; religion and, 16–17; values and, 148–49, 153, 155
retractions, 12–13, 203, 206, 228–29, 233–38, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43
RetractionWatch.com, 206, 236
revisions, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247
Roberts, Dorothy E., 271n41
Robeson, Paul, 98
Robinson, Art, 174, 284n1
robustness, 27, 53, 57, 133, 168
Roosevelt, Teddy, 87–88, 91
Rosner, David, 67
Rudwick, Martin, 247
Russell, Bertrand, 259n30
Sachs, Jeffrey, 17
Sagan, Carl, 179
Santorum, Rick, 8, 148–49
Save-the-Redwoods League, 91
Schaffer, Simon, 44
Schlick, Moritz, 30
Schooler, Jonathan, 203–4
Schuchert, Charles, 87
science, 16–17; bias and, 7, 20, 51–59, 73, 82, 97, 107–8, 120, 135, 144, 175, 178–79, 205, 209, 211, 232, 236–37, 240, 249, 263n89, 263n91, 284n4; as collective activity, 2–3, 28–32, 39, 50, 52, 58, 68, 139, 174, 203, 246–48, 260n39; as consensual, 3, 19, 55, 60, 149; conservation laws of, 35, 38, 76, 138, 180; Creation and, 8, 156, 158; facsimile, 240–41, 292n49; failed theories of, 19, 60–61, 72, 203–6, 234–35; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; God and, 16; Group on Best Practices in Science (BPS) and, 202, 206; hoaxes and, 119, 245, 291n37, 293n3, 293n55; incommensurability and, 10, 40–41, 43, 186, 190; metaphysics and, 20–22; Nobel Prize and, 67, 98, 104, 166, 174, 204, 263n88, 269n19; political debate masquerading as, 129; present and future of, 202–11; pure, 9, 150–51, 166, 168–69, 172, 177, 216; replication crisis and, 12–13, 228, 289n13; Sagan on, 179; as search for new knowledge, 170; technology and, 9, 152, 164, 166–69, 175, 178–80, 193, 213, 215–21, 284n2, 287n5
Science, the Endless Frontier (Bush), 167–68
Science and Human Values (Bronowski), 167
Science journal, 205, 242
Science Question in Feminism, The (Harding), 50–51
science studies: absolutism and, 46, 48; diversity and, 47–48; Edinburgh school and, 44–49; evidence and, 44–46, 49; experience and, 40; failed theories of science and, 19, 72, 234–35; falsehoods and, 44–47; hypotheses and, 46; Kuhn and, 39–43; observation and, 40, 46, 48; p-hacking and, 207, 229; philosophy and, 19; relativism and, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5; religion and, 44; replication issues and, 11–12, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 242–43, 290n23; rise of, 43–49; scientific method and, 39–49; scientific theories and, 41; social construction and, 43–50, 220, 262n70, 262n76; social turn in, 4, 54, 57; sociology of scientific knowledge and, 43–49; truth and, 4–5, 46–49
scientific method: birth control and, 107–8, 113–14, 117; Comte and, 20–23, 42, 48; consensus and, 2, 6, 55, 127, 149, 249–50; continental drift and, 82–86; deduction and, 25, 76, 79, 82–84, 86, 89, 95, 135, 186–87, 219, 276n137; diversity and, 143, 246, 250; doctrine and, 20; empiricism and, 24–39, 79; epistemologies and, 52, 55, 177; eugenics and, 92, 102, 104; European, 5; evidence and, 6–7, 34, 37, 49, 79, 82, 86, 117, 127, 133–34, 143, 211, 246, 250; experiments and, 26 (see also experiments); fetishism and, 6–7, 134, 139, 250; general lessons on, 6; hypotheses and, 26 (see also hypotheses); induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 185, 190; Krosnick and, 11; Kuhn and, 10, 39, 41–42, 186; limitations of, 68, 181, 246; naturalism and, 240, 276n137; objectivity and, 46–47 (see also objectivity); observation and, 3 (see also observation); openness and, 249; p-hacking and, 207, 229; philosophy and, 2–3, 29, 46, 55, 197, 211, 276n137; policy assessments and, 197; positive knowledge and, 20; and present and future of science, 202, 204, 209–10; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 127, 133–35, 139; science studies and, 39–49; scientific theories and, 3, 186; self-reporting and, 107–8, 113; stages of, 183–84; under-determination and, 10, 32–39, 43, 190; values and, 149; verification and, 3, 24–27, 40
scientific theories: Bacon and, 22; Comte and, 22–23; continental drift and, 83; critical positivity ratio and, 234–35; defending, 83, 220; development of, 83; diversity and, 7, 219; epistemologies and, 51, 55, 173, 179; eugenics and, 95; failed, 19, 60–61, 72, 203–6, 234–35; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 135–37; religion and, 70; replication crisis and, 12–13, 208, 211, 228, 236, 239, 289n17, 290n23; retail challenges and, 186; retractions and, 12–13, 203, 206, 228–29, 233–37, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43; revisions and, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247; scientific method and, 3, 186; wholesale challenges and, 186
Scott, Colin, 62
Seaman, Barbara, 109–11, 136
Seismological Society of America, 82
Sellars, Wilfrid, 185
Seralini, Gilles, 292n43
serotonin, 113–14, 134, 215
Sex in Education; or, a Fair Chance for Girls (Clarke), 76–78, 270n33, 270n40
sexism, 51, 136
Sextus Empiricus, 183
Shapin, Steven, 44, 167, 178
Shelley, Mary, 258n12
Shenton, Joan, 266n130
Shockley, William, 60–61
Shock of the Old, The (Edgerton), 178
Showalter, Elaine, 76
Showalter, English, 76
Singewald, Joseph, 82
skepticism: American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and, 17; attacking scientists and, 67–68, 255; climate change and, 4, 8, 12, 17, 73, 140, 148, 153, 192–93, 266n130, 283n29, 284n1; consensus and, 127, 233; disbelief and, 26, 44; dizziness and, 183–84; empiricism and, 26, 28, 36–37, 259n31; epistemologies and, 56, 59, 74, 163, 173; everyday trust and, 9; observation and, 26, 184; organizational agendas and, 4–5, 67; policy assessments and, 192–93, 287n5; rationalism and, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4; reliable knowledge and, 127, 139; roots of, 12; sore losers and, 146; values and, 148, 153, 157; wholesale, 183
smallpox, 218
social construction, 43–50, 220, 262n70, 262n76
social costs of carbon (SCC), 191–92
socialism, 28, 97, 101–2, 128, 136, 146, 173, 249, 273n86
social turn, 4, 54, 57
sociologists, 9, 20, 43–50, 55, 57, 108, 127, 150–51, 177, 262n70
Sokal, Alan, 234
Solomon, 158
Soviet Union, 170, 216
speculation, 1, 213, 235–36
speed of light, 34
Spiro, Jonathan, 91–92
Stanford prison experiment, 204, 231–32, 290n23
Stapel, Diederik, 203
Stark, Laura, 143, 265n117
Station for Experimental Evolution, 92, 272n71
statistics, 12, 275n116; birth control and, 114–16; cancer clusters and, 281n14; correlation and, 116–17; dental floss and, 122; eugenics and, 102; experts and, 281n14; inadequate training in, 74; p-hacking and, 207, 229; reliable knowledge and, 133–34; misuse of, 73, 230, 268n13; system values and, 209
Steen, Grant, 235
Steinberg, Arthur, 171–72, 285n21, 285n22
sterilization, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97
structural realists, 268n12
Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Kuhn), 39, 261n65
Stump v. Sparkman, 272n75
suicide, 88, 95, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121
sunscreen, 13, 245, 250–55, 294n10, 294n11, 294n13
sunspots, 63
superstition, 20, 22, 24, 54, 263n91
surveillance, 151, 177
survival of fittest, 78, 89
Tanner Lectures, 2, 13, 245, 271n41
technofideists, 61
technology: epistemologies and, 9, 164–69, 175, 178–80, 215–21; physics and, 152; policy assessments and, 193, 195; present and future of science and, 210; purity and, 168; Sagan on, 179; science and, 9, 152, 164, 166–69, 175, 178–80, 193, 213, 215–21,
284n2, 287n5; weapons and, 166–70, 177, 179, 216
teleology, 20–21, 23
Tello, Monique, 107–8
Ten Commandments, 156–57
tenure, 58, 210–11
Termier, Pierre, 83–84
tetanus, 16
theology, 20–21, 70, 150, 228, 287n6
theoretical anarchism, 47–48
thermodynamics, 33, 35, 76–77, 138
Thessalonians, Bible book of, 282n26
Thomas, M. Carey, 78
thought collectives, 28–32
tobacco industry: cancer and, 65, 115, 239; diseases from products of, 65–66, 71, 123, 239; evidence and, 142; heart disease and, 65; misinformation and, 1, 65–67, 129, 142, 281n3, 290n26; paid studies and, 213, 240–42, 292n44; suppressed information and, 65–66, 266n136
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 62
traditions, 37, 43, 60, 62–63, 78, 102, 136, 165, 209, 220, 235, 260n39, 262n70
transparency, 79, 152, 164, 178, 198, 211–12, 227
Trump, Donald: climate science and, 10, 13, 191–92, 194, 293n3; exercise and, 269n25; petroleum industry and, 194; policy assessments and, 191–92, 194; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; vaccinations and, 15–16, 71
trust: birth control and, 104–17; consensus and, 2 (see also consensus); continental drift and, 80–87; crisis of, 1, 3, 13, 19, 237; dental floss and, 118–27; empiricism and, 24–30; epistemologies and, 49–59; eugenics and, 87–104; everyday, 9, 163–66, 177–79; faith and, 36, 56, 66, 68, 168, 178, 183; full disclosure and, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66; great men and, 3; informed, 4, 60, 141; Limited Energy Theory and, 76–80; Pascal’s Wager and, 140–46; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; policy assessments and, 191–201; positive knowledge and, 19–23; and present and future of science, 206; reliable knowledge and, 127–39; revisions and, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247; science studies and, 39–49; social effects and, 12, 18, 55, 57–58, 64, 68, 128, 141, 149, 152, 164, 166, 173, 175, 178, 192–93, 222, 225, 246–47, 268n4; values and, 8 (see also values)
truth: circularity and, 181; complete grasp of, 7; consensus and, 222, 249; criterion for, 183; critical interrogation and, 58–60, 68, 137, 246, 266n136, 284n2; dimensional homogeneity and, 188–89; disclosure and, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66; empiricism and, 24, 32; epistemologies and, 50, 165, 169, 175, 177, 179; eugenics and, 100; innovation and, 208–9; instability of scientific, 74–75; intellectual honesty and, 13; justification and, 7, 24, 26, 42, 68, 71, 95–98, 151, 158, 183–86, 191, 198, 217, 224, 282n26; Limited Energy Theory and, 79; observation and, 19, 21, 24, 74; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 29n55; petroleum industry and, 4; positive knowledge and, 21, 249; post-truth, 70; present and future of science and, 202, 206, 208; production of, 137; reliable knowledge and, 131, 137, 139; science studies and, 4–5, 46–49; shared interest in, 5, 68; structural realism and, 268n12; temporary, 72, 74–75; transparency and, 79, 152, 164, 178, 198, 211–12, 227; utility and, 19, 151, 218–19; values and, 151; Weinberg on, 269n19