authoritarianism, 27, 84, 259n31
autism, 15, 63, 108, 129, 132, 154, 275n114
Ayer, A. J., 24–25, 29, 236
Ayurvedic medicine, 62
AZT, 64
Bacon, Francis, 22, 33
Baliani, Gianbattista, 188
Barad, Karen, 280n202
Bargh, John, 203
Barnes, Barry, 44–45
Bayer Pharmaceuticals, 206, 236
BBC, 204, 231–32, 290n22
Bechtel, Bill, 276n137
Beck, Glenn, 282n23
Bem, Daryl, 203
Berger, Peter L., 262n70
Bernal, J. D., 97
Bernard, Claude, 36, 52
Berry, Edward, 82
bias: assimilation and, 204–5; balancing of, 59; birth control and, 107–8; class, 97, 249; Comte and, 20; continental drift and, 82; dental floss and, 120; diversity and, 249; epistemologies and, 51–59, 175, 178–79; eugenics and, 97; false conclusions and, 7; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; homogeneous groups and, 249; humility and, 7; industry funding and, 73, 208, 210, 236–40; inherent, 7; journals and, 209, 235, 263n91; Limited Energy Theory and, 249; mass media and, 232, 236, 263n91; ontological relativism and, 263n89; personal, 144; rationalistic, 284n4; reliable knowledge and, 135; replication issues and, 11–12, 204–7, 228, 232, 236, 239, 290n23; sampling, 107; scientific papers and, 204–6; Stanford prison experiment and, 232
Bible, 148, 158, 282n26
Big Bang theory, 190
Billings, Marland, 86
biodiversity, 8, 156, 158, 195, 223–25
Biological Basis of Human Nature (Jennings), 102, 274n99
biomedicine, 11–12, 121, 146, 229–30, 235–36, 292n46
biometrics, 92, 97
birth control: bias and, 107–8; consensus and, 128; Danish study of, 107–9, 114–15; depression and, 2, 5–6, 104–17, 140; hypotheses and, 116; male, 113, 276n129; mood changes and, 107, 109, 112, 114; patients and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; psychiatrists and, 109–12; public health officials and, 117; scientific method and, 107–8, 113–14, 117; Seaman and, 109–11, 136; self-reporting and, 107–9, 113; suicide and, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121; Swedish study on, 110
blood pressure, 113, 250–54, 294n14
Bloor, David, 44, 46, 220, 258n13, 263n83
Boas, Franz, 96–97
Bohm, David, 171
Brewer, Priscilla, 284n3
British Association of Dermatologists, 254
bronchitis, 65
Bronowski, Jacob, 167
Brookhaven Laboratory, 170
Brown, Nick, 234
Bryan, William Jennings, 8
Buckley, William F., 263n91
Buck v. Bell, 78, 88, 272n75
Building of the Brain, The (Clarke), 270n40
Busch, Jane, 284n3
Bush, George H. W., 148
Bush, Vannevar, 167–68
caloric theory of heat, 19
cancer, 243, 281n14; chemotherapy and, 170; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and, 115; GcMAF and, 243; periodontal disease and, 123; skin, 252–54; sunscreen and, 252–54; tobacco industry and, 65, 115, 239
Carnap, Rudolf, 25
Carson, Ben, 15
Cartwright, Nancy, 126, 164, 278n166
Castelli, Benedetto, 188
Catholicism, 64, 148, 151, 156–58, 273n78, 291n13
Cato Institute, 282n23, 293n3
cavities, 70, 119–20, 122, 126
Cell journal, 205, 242
cell phones, 217–19
Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, 84–86, 103
chemical weapons, 166–67, 169, 177
Chernobyl, 279n192
Christians, 8, 21, 129, 148–49, 153, 155–57, 228, 273n78, 282n26
Ciancio, Sebastian G., 125–26
circularity, 9, 181–82, 185, 221–22
civilizational knowledge, 62–63
Clarke, Edward H.: The Building of the Brain and, 270n40; and higher education for women, 76–80, 89, 135–39, 226–27, 270n33, 270n40; Jacobi and, 5, 79–80, 136, 249; menstruation and, 78–80; Sex in Education; or, a Fair Chance for Girls and, 76–78, 270n33, 270n40
classical mechanics, 19
Clausius, Rudolf, 76
climate change: American consumers and, 148; anthropogenic, 17, 65, 72, 95, 129, 140, 142, 148, 154–55, 193, 217, 223–26, 230, 245; authority issues and, 69, 71–72; carbon sequestration and, 240; confusion over, 15, 18, 69, 71–73, 119, 142–43, 155; consensus on, 1, 6–7, 10, 12–13, 18, 95, 129–30, 142, 149, 175, 192, 224, 226, 228, 293n3; Cruz and, 293n3; denial of, 6, 87, 119, 153, 155–58, 175, 179, 222, 225, 245, 266n130, 282n23, 293n3; Earth’s surface temperatures and, 230; economic issues and, 1, 12, 17–18, 63, 145, 191–92, 218, 224–25; environmentalists and, 18; evidence and, 6, 17, 63, 65, 140, 142, 145, 153–54, 192, 195, 217, 229–30, 235, 293n3; extreme weather and, 1, 15, 140, 245; global warming and, 1, 229–30, 293n3; as hoax, 119, 245, 293n3; human activities and, 1–2; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and, 17, 59, 194, 225–26, 287n3; liberals and, 145; Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change and, 10; Papal Encyclical on Climate Change and, 228; petroleum industry and, 4, 17–18, 63, 65, 67, 142, 225; polar vortex and, 1; policy assessments and, 191–95, 200, 223–24; politics and, 18, 63, 95, 190, 218, 293n3; Pope Francis and, 157, 228; published papers on, 112; religion and, 155–58, 217–18, 227–28; reversing effects of, 7; skepticism and, 4, 8, 12, 17, 73, 140, 148, 153, 192–93, 266n130, 283n29, 284n1; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; sunspots and, 63; Trump and, 10, 13, 191–92, 194, 293n3; UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and, 148, 226; values and, 148, 153–58, 282n23
climate science: air pollution and, 194; consensus on, 112, 174; Crichton and, 95, 99, 271n57; Democrats and, 148; economics and, 12, 130, 147, 149, 218; environmentalism and, 8, 193; future of humanity and, 2; greenhouse gases and, 1, 15, 65, 134, 230; induced migrations and, 1; Obama and, 191–92; petroleum industry and, 67, 130; policy assessments and, 191–201, 224; public opinion on, 12; religion and, 149, 155, 158, 217–18, 227–28; Republicans and, 148; rising sea levels and, 1; Robinson and, 174, 284n1; skepticism of, 8, 73, 235, 257n1, 284n1, 293n3; values and, 153; weather forecasting and, 152
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 120–23, 126
cognitive dissonance, 204
Colbert, Stephen, 70
Cold War, 151, 166, 170–71, 173, 176, 215–17
collective activity: critical evaluation and, 68, 246–48; epistemologies and, 174; Fleck and, 3, 28–32, 39–41, 260n39, 261n69; interrogation and, 58; Longino and, 50, 52; observation of natural world and, 246; reliable knowledge and, 139; science and, 2–3, 28–32, 39, 50, 52, 58, 68, 139, 174, 203, 246–48, 260n39; social accomplishment and, 50
Collins, Harry, 45
communism, 29, 168, 171–73, 259n31, 285n21
Comte, Auguste, 20–25, 29, 42, 48, 64, 182, 259n25
Conant, James, 39
conflict of interest, 4–5, 65–68, 121, 132–33, 237, 266n136, 290n26
Conjectures and Refutations (Popper), 27
conscience clause, 218
consensual process, 3, 19, 55, 60, 149
ustworthiness and, 2, 6, 174; truth and, 222, 249; vaccinations and, 218
conservation of energy, 35, 38, 76, 138
conservation of mass, 35, 180
conservatives, 30, 130, 148, 155, 199, 263n91, 264n92
constructivism, 175–76, 198–99, 202, 220, 262n70, 287n5
contestation, 129, 246, 248
continental drift, 5; bias and, 82; consensus and, 81; Daly and, 86; deduction and, 82–86; evidence and, 79, 81–82, 86–87; experience and, 82–83, 86; Gondwana and, 87; hypotheses and, 82–86; induction and, 250; plate tectonics and, 39, 69–70, 74, 81, 86, 173, 280n203; rejection of, 80–87; scientific method and, 82–86; scientific theories and, 83; Wegener and, 81–82, 86–87, 139, 146, 261n53; Willis and, 82–84
contraction theory, 19
Conway, Erik, 13, 18, 67, 130, 153, 224, 245–46, 292n44
Cook, James, 62
Cook, John, 218
Copernican Revolution, The (Kuhn), 39, 42
co-production, 71, 267n3
corpuscular theory, 35
Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 284n3
Creation, 8, 16–17, 156, 158
creationism, 16–17, 148, 158, 179, 182
Creation Ministries International, 69
Cree people, 62
Crichton, Michael, 95, 99, 271n57
critical interrogation, 58–60, 68, 137, 246, 266n136, 284n2
critical positivity ratio, 234–35
critical rationalism, 26–28, 259n31
Cropsey, Joseph, 257n4
Cruz, Ted, 293n3
Daly, Reginald, 86
Darwin, Charles, 31, 70, 79, 89–90, 167, 270n33, 274n97
Davenport, Charles, 92–93, 133, 139, 272n71
Dawkins, Richard, 70
de Broglie, Louis, 33–34, 260n47
decline effect, 203–4
deduction: Bechtel and, 276n137; continental drift and, 82–86; eugenics and, 89, 95; hypothetico-deductive approach and, 82–83, 219; Kuhn and, 186–87; Limited Energy Theory and, 76, 79, 95, 135; observation and, 25; rival paradigms and, 186–87
democracy, 6, 84, 99, 167–68, 203, 223, 282n23
Democrats, 17, 71, 148, 203
dental floss: American Dental Association and, 126; bias and, 120; cavities and, 119–20, 122, 126; Cochrane review on, 120–23, 126; confusion over, 15; consensus and, 128; ethics and, 124; evidence and, 6, 118–27, 154; experience and, 124–25; gingivitis and, 121–23, 126, 134; gum disease and, 119, 125; Iafolla and, 118; journals and, 119; media on, 118–21, 124, 126–27; patients and, 122–25; periodontal disease and, 123, 125–26; plaque and, 120, 122–23, 125, 277n162; public health officials and, 119; reliable knowledge and, 133–34; social consequences and, 18; trials on, 121–26
depression: birth control and, 2, 5–6, 104–17, 140; experience and, 5–6, 104–7, 110, 112, 114; mood changes and, 107, 109, 112, 114; patients and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; Prozac and, 114; psychiatrists and, 109–12; public health officials and, 117; serotonin and, 113–14, 134, 215; suicide and, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121; Zoloft and, 114
dermatologists, 250–55
Descartes, René, 29, 183
Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 89–90
determinism, 102
Dewey, John, 10, 197–99
deWolf Smyth, Henry, 171–72, 285n13
diabetes, 65
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 118–19
diphtheria, 16
disbelief, 26, 44
disclosure, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66
disinformation, 62, 67, 218, 240, 245, 268n13
diversity: bias and, 249; biodiversity and, 8, 156, 158, 195, 223–25; Creation and, 8, 156, 158; demographic, 144, 263n90; epistemologies and, 4, 50–59, 145–46; evidence and, 143–44; experts and, 4, 7, 13, 132, 246; gender, 144; importance of, 249, 262n82, 264n100; intellectual, 263n90; objectivity and, 4; open discussion and, 145; perspectival, 144; physics and, 280n202; policy assessments and, 195, 200, 223–25; protecting Earth’s, 157–58; reliable knowledge and, 132, 136–37; scientific communities and, 14; scientific method and, 143, 246, 250; scientific theories and, 7, 219; values and, 156–58
Doctor’s Case against the Pill, The (Seaman), 109–10
doctrine: empiricism and, 37; eugenics and, 100; positive knowledge and, 20; religious, 150; scientific method and, 20
dogmatism, 36–37, 67, 84–86, 260n39
Donn, Jeff, 119–21, 124
Donne, John, 158
Douglas, Heather, 145, 281n3, 283n28
Duesberg, Peter H., 146, 280n205
Duhem, Pierre: Duhem-Quine thesis, 37–39, 190; empiricism and, 4, 32–39, 48, 190, 260n40, 260n45, 260n47, 261n56, 261n58; experiments and, 34, 37, 260n45, 261n56, 261n58
Earth Institute, 17
Earth Summit, 148
economic issues, 267n3; climate change and, 1, 12, 17–18, 63, 130, 145, 191–92, 218, 224–25; eugenics and, 90, 99–100; free market and, 1, 149; laissez-faire, 17–18, 225; policy assessments and, 191–93, 199; positive knowledge and, 263n87; reliable knowledge and, 130, 133; science and, 1, 12, 63, 130, 133, 145, 147–51, 173, 191–93, 204–7, 217, 224–25; values and, 147–51
Edenhofer, Ottmar, 10, 12, 191–201, 223–28
Edgerton, David, 178
Edinburgh school, 44–49
Einstein, Albert, 31, 53, 175, 218, 232–33, 260n47
emphysema, 66
empiricism: absolutism and, 46, 48; Ayer and, 24–25, 29, 236; challenges to, 26–39; co-production and, 71, 267n3; doctrine and, 37; Duhem and, 32–39, 48; evidence and, 32, 34, 37–38, 79, 81–82, 86, 140, 221, 230, 246, 264n100, 270n40; evolution and, 31, 71; experience and, 26, 30, 38; experiments and, 26, 33–39; experts and, 267n3; falsehoods and, 24–27, 37; Fleck and, 28–32, 39–41; hypotheses and, 26, 33–36; informed dissent and, 128; journals and, 32; logical, 24–26, 46, 259n26; objectivity and, 4; observation and, 24–27, 30, 32, 34; Popper and, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48; rationalism and, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4; religion and, 24, 30; scientific method and, 24–39, 79; skepticism and, 26, 28, 36–37, 259n31; truth and, 24, 32; under-determination and, 10, 32–39, 43, 190; varieties of, 24–26; verification and, 3, 24–27, 40
energeticism, 270n26
environmentalism: air pollution and, 194; American consumers and, 148; climate science and, 8, 18, 193; Earth Summit and, 148; eugenics and, 92, 94, 100, 102–3; extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) and, 60; extreme weather and, 1, 15, 140; global warming and, 1, 229–30, 293n3; greenhouse gases and, 1, 15, 65, 134, 230; Paris Agreement and, 287n3; petroleum industry and, 239; policy assessments and, 225; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; values and, 8
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 115, 191
epistemologies: bias and, 51–59, 175, 178–79; collective activity and, 174; consensus and, 55, 58, 164, 174–75, 222–23; diversity and, 4, 50–59; ethics and, 145; everyday trust and, 9, 163–66, 177–79; evidence and, 49, 57, 59, 164, 178; evolution and, 167, 174–75, 180; experience and, 50–51, 169, 172–80; experiments and, 53, 174; experts and, 56–58, 171, 173, 177; hypotheses and, 55, 185; journals and, 58; Merton and, 43, 150–51, 155; moral issues and, 145, 164–71, 177; objectivity and, 50–54, 58–59; observation and, 52; philosophy and, 54–55, 164, 167, 171–72; Popper and, 29; reliable knowledge and, 165; scientific method and, 52, 55, 177; scientific theories and, 51, 55, 173, 179; situated knowledge and, 175–76; skepticism and, 56, 59, 74, 163, 173; social, 49–55; technology and, 9, 164–69, 175, 178–80, 215–21; truth and, 50, 165, 169, 175, 177, 179; vaccinations and, 170, 175, 179
equality, 11, 98, 198
estrogen, 113, 117, 125
ethics: consensus and, 10, 228; dental floss and, 124; epistemologies and, 145; National Bioethics Advisory Commission and, 143; policy assessments and, 193, 196–200; religion and, 44, 158, 227; values and, 10, 44, 61, 124, 143, 145, 158, 193, 196–200, 227–28, 265n117, 287n5; weapons and, 166–70, 177, 179, 216
eugenics: B
ernal and, 97; bias and, 97; biometrics and, 92, 97; Buck v. Bell and, 78, 88, 272n75; consensus and, 95, 104, 142; Davenport and, 92–93, 133, 139, 272n71; deduction and, 89, 95; diversity and, 145–46; doctrine and, 100; economic issues and, 90, 99–100; environmentalism and, 92, 94, 100, 102–3; evidence and, 96, 99, 102–4; evolution and, 89–90, 92, 103; experience and, 96; experiments and, 92, 103; experts and, 88, 275n109; feeblemindedness and, 87–88, 93, 272n75; feminism and, 273n78; Galton and, 89–91, 96, 98; Haldane and, 97–98, 138, 274n92; heredity and, 90, 92, 96–97, 100, 103; Hitler and, 88, 92; Holmes and, 88, 92; Huxley and, 97, 274n92, 274n97; immigration and, 89–97, 273n85; intelligence and, 90, 96–97, 100–101, 273n78; Jennings and, 102–4, 274n99; Jews and, 91, 96; journals and, 275n109; Lamarckian notions and, 92, 272n70; Laughlin and, 88–89, 93–94, 272n62; law of reversion to the mediocre and, 90–91; Limited Energy Theory and, 273n78; moral issues and, 61, 104; Muller and, 97–99, 138, 274n90, 274n92, 274n97; natalism and, 94–95; Nazis and, 5, 88, 91–94, 99; Pascal’s Wager and, 140–41; people of color and, 91, 98; phenotypic traits and, 87; positive, 91; principal components of, 94–95; racism and, 88–100; Roosevelt and, 87–88, 91; scientific method and, 92, 102, 104; scientific theories and, 95; socialism and, 273n86; as social movement, 92; soft, 271n61; sterilization and, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97; Stump v. Sparkman and, 272n75; truth and, 100; women and, 78, 88, 91, 93, 95, 100–101
Eugenics Records Office (ERO), 88, 92–94, 102, 272n71
everyday trust, 9, 163–66, 177–79
evidence: bias and, 7, 20, 51–59, 73, 82, 97, 107–8, 120, 135, 144, 175, 178–79, 204–5, 207, 209, 232, 236–37, 240, 249, 263n89, 263n91, 284n4; and birth control’s link to depression, 5–6, 109–10, 112, 115–17; climate change and, 6, 17, 63, 65, 140, 142, 145, 153–54, 192, 195, 217, 229–30, 235, 290n3; Comte and, 64; consensus and, 6, 13, 104, 127–28, 142, 233, 250, 293n3; continental drift and, 79, 81–82, 86–87; correlation and, 116–17; dental floss and, 6, 118–27, 154; dietary guidelines and, 118–19; discounting of, 104, 117, 133–34, 141, 153, 250, 263n88, 269n14; diversity and, 143–44; emotional contestation and, 248; empiricism and, 32, 34, 37–38, 79, 81–82, 86, 140, 221, 230, 246, 264n100, 270n40; epistemologies and, 49, 57, 59, 164, 178; eugenics and, 96, 99, 102–4; experts and, 6, 63, 65, 131, 142, 221, 246, 263n88, 267n3, 270n40; false, 7, 37, 46, 70, 115, 124, 142, 153; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; historical, 18–19; hoaxes and, 119, 245, 291n37, 293n3, 293n55; induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 185, 190; interpretation and, 30, 32, 86, 124, 128, 142, 186, 205, 248, 261n58; Krosnick and, 204, 209–10, 227–33, 236–38; objectivity and, 267n3; patient reports and, 275n113; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; pesticides and, 245; p-hacking and, 207, 229; policy assessments and, 192, 195, 226; Pope Francis and, 64; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 128, 131, 133–36, 138, 233; replication issues and, 11–12, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 242–43, 290n23; residual uncertainty and, 141–42; retractions and, 12–13, 203, 206, 228, 233–37, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43; science in action and, 217; science studies and, 44–46, 49; scientific method and, 6–7, 34, 37, 49, 79, 82, 86, 117, 127, 133–34, 143, 211, 246, 250; statistics and, 12, 73–74, 102, 114–16, 122, 133–34, 209, 211, 229–30, 268n13, 275n116; sunscreen and, 13, 245, 250–55, 294n11, 294n13; tobacco industry and, 65–66, 290n26; vaccinations and, 275n114; values and, 6, 8, 65, 121, 127–28, 145, 153–54, 192, 211; vetted, 57, 63–64, 66, 69–70, 232