on Conflict of the Orders 146–7
on the death of Romulus 73–4
on foundation story 58–62
on human sacrifice at Rome 180
on the rape of Lucretia 121–2
on the regal period 93, 97, 98, 110, 123–4, 125
on relationship of Romulus and Aeneas 77
on the early Republic 128, 131, 132, 142, 152
on Scipio Barbatus 139
on Second Punic War 181–2, 183–4
Lollius Urbicus, Quintus, governor of Britain 509, 521
Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) 423
Lucceius, Lucius 40, 51
Lucian, satirist 480, 490
Lucius Verus, Emperor (joint ruler with Marcus Aurelius) 388, 401, 439–40
Lucretia 93, 121–3, 132, Pl. 4
Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus): On the Nature of Things (De rerum natura) 298–9
Lupercalia festival 103, 293
M
Maccari, Cesare 31, 31–4, 40, 49, Pl. 1
Macedon, Roman conflict with 176, 179, 194, 196
Macrinus, Marcus Opellius, Emperor 528–9, 531
magic 139, 145, 465
maps and ancient images of the world 163, 364, Pl. 21
Marcus Aurelius, Emperor (joint ruler with Lucius Verus to 169 CE) 401, 402–3, 402, 411, 420, 480, 528, 534
philosophical writing and image 387, 399, 412
wars on the Danube 402, 486, Pl. 10
Marius, Gaius 256, 266–9
army recruitment 267–8
marriage and weddings 303–13, 304
age of girls at 311–13
arranged 309–310, 379
banned between patricians and plebeians 149, 150, 151
first Roman 61–2, 64, 303–4
see also intermarriage
Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) 123
Masada, siege of, Judaea 511–12, 514
Mastarna (possibly Servius Tullius) 115–6, Pl. 7
Mesopotamia 483
Metellus, Quintus Caecilius, Marius’ commander 266
Metellus Scipio (Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica), opponent of Caesar 290, 294
midwives 314, 315, 409
‘military tribunes with consular power’ (‘colonels’) 132, 138, 152
militias see private armies
Mithradates VI, King of Pontus Cicero’s speech supporting Pompey’s command against him 269–73
long-standing war with Rome 214, 242–3, 244, 269, 270, 279, 283, 287, 321, 475
Pompey’s victory of 63 BCE, triumph 61 BCE 214, 273–4
suicide after Pharnaces’ coup 273
Mons Claudianus (‘Mountain of Claudius’), Egypt 505–6, 506
Monte Testaccio (‘Broken Pot Mountain’), Rome 507, 508
Mummius Achaicus, Lucius 210–12, 213, 487
N
Nero, Emperor 330, 334, 358, 387, 388, 397, 401, 404–5, 415, 416, 418, 422, 423, 432, 469
death of his wife 428–9
extravagance and building 399, 405, 407–8, 413
‘false Neros’ 404
Fire of Rome 398
modern rehabilitations 404
murder of his mother 398, 400–401, 404, 422
and Otho 489
scapegoats Christians 398, 518
and Tiridates 485–6
Nerva, Emperor 387, 388, 401, 418–20, 426
Nicolaus of Damascus 337
Numa Pompilius, King of Rome 95, 100, 453
and religion 93, 101, 102, 103–4
Roman calendar 104–6
Numitor, king of Alba Longa 58, 59
O
Octavia, sister of Octavian, wife of Marcus Antonius 346, 347
Octavian
adopted by Caesar in his will 339–40
brutality and excess 340–41, 352
known as Augustus after 27 BCE 340, 354
‘son of a god’ 340, 355, 368
talking ravens 352–3, 359
triumph of 29 BCE 348–9, 351
triumvirate and civil war 341–9
see also Augustus, Emperor
Opimius, Lucius, murderer of Gaius Gracchus 128, 232–3, 236, 267, 441
optimates 227, 256
Oracles of Astrampsychus, The 465–7
Oscans and Oscan language 85, 172, 212, 239, 249
Ostia, port of Rome 93, 315, 447, 451, 455
Bar of the Seven Sages 471–3, Pl. 15
Otho, Marcus Salvius, Emperor 388, 489
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) Ars Amatoria (Love Lessons) 63, 359
Miseries (Tristia) 376
P
Pantheon, Rome see Hadrian’s Pantheon
Parthian Empire, conflicts with Rome 238, 279–80, 280, 291, 339, 347, 363
patricians see Conflict of the Orders
Pausanias: Guidebook to Greece (Periegesis) 500–501
peasant farmers 74, 221, 309, 343, 442–3
see also Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, land reform
Perpetua, Vibia (Christian martyr) 518–19
Perseus, King of Macedon (defeated by Aemilius Paullus) 176, 184, 194, 196, 199, 201
Perusia (Perugia)
siege of (40 BCE) 342, 380
small sling bullets unearthed 344–5, 345
Peticius, Gaius, and family 287, 288
Petronius (Gaius Petronius Arbiter): Satyricon 334, 441–2, 453
Phaedrus: Fables 467–8
Pharnaces, son of Mithradates VI 273, 287, 290
Pharsalus, Battle of (48 BCE) 287, 294, 300
Philippi, Battle of (42 BCE) 342
Pictor, Quintus Fabius 98
History 138, 171
pileus (cap of liberty) 295, 296
pirates 176, 271, 325, 523
Plautus (Titus Maccius Plautus) 171, 197
cultural diversity 202–3
plebeians see Conflict of the Orders
Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) 120
on the Augustan world map 364
on Caesar’s crime in Gaul 285
on Cloaca Maxima 120
criticism of extravagance 274, 319, 435–6
on the succession of Tiberius 380
Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) 419, 424–8, 475–80
on Christians 476–7, 517–18
on his properties 435–6, 437, 507
as provincial governor 475–80, 487, 488
relations with dissidents 427–8
Plutarch (Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus) 230–31, 289, 349, 500, 501–2
Pollio, Gaius Asinius 286–7
Polybius 172–3, 184–93, 185, 196, 211
hostage in Rome 184–6
observer and analyst of Roman power 153, 172–3, 186–9, 192–3, 213, 502
Pompeii 249, 503, Pls. 14 and 17
bars in 456–7, 457, 456, 461
House of the Faun 406–7
laundries 454–5, 470–71, Pl. 18
life in the local Forum 444, 444
literate culture 470–71
Social War and aftermath 237, 241, 251
statue plinth in Temple of Apollo precinct 211–12
Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) 215, 276
in ‘Gang of Three’ 218, 278–9, 309
image under emperors 384, 423
imperial-style honours and prerogatives 274–7, 285
military victories 214, 271–4
murdered in Egypt 219, 287, 289–90
rivalry and civil war with Caesar 219, 256, 278, 287–9
sole-consul 282
Pompey, Sextus, son of Pompey the Great 291, 346
Pomponia, Atticus’ sister 310–11
poor, poverty 442–73
and Christianity 473
land distributions 45, 216, 222
living conditions 33, 46, 442–8
poor voters 191–2
Poppaea Sabina, wife of Nero 428–9, 489
populares 227, 256
population estimates 36, 97–8, 119, 135, 229,
329, 362–3, 440, 457, 521
Porsenna, Lars, King of Clusium 123–4, 125
Praeneste, Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia 234, 235, 235
Praetorian Guard 371, 391, 392, 393–4, 417, 419, 420, 528
praetors, ‘chief praetors’, propraetors 131, 136, 272
private armies 26, 98, 99, 114–17, 141, 245, 256, 281, 340, 370
procurator (specialist financial officer) 488, 490, 518
Propertius 154
‘proscriptions’ (‘notices’ or pogroms) 217, 243–4, 253, 340, 341–2, 343–4
publicani (‘public service providers’; ‘publicans’) 263, 328, 488
Publicola, Publius Valerius 98, 129
Publilia, second wife of Cicero 302, 303, 311, 313
pudicitia (‘chastity’) 122, 122, 123
Punic War, First (264 – 241 BCE) 174, 175, 181, 186, 192, 193, 199, Pl. 8
Punic War, Second (218 – 201 BCE) 175–7, 179, 180, 183–4, 200, 201, 206, 245, 257
see also Hannibal
Punic War, Third (149 – 146 BCE) 175
Pyrrhus 173–5, 173, 194
‘Pyrrhic victory’ 174
Pythagoras 104, 465, 466
Q
Quadratilla, Ummidia 436, 458
quaestors 32, 136, 246, Pl. 8
R
rape, in myths of early Rome 60–63, 93, 121–3, 137, 148–50, 308
regal period 91–130
end of monarchy 121–5
inscription under the black stone 88–9, 91, 93, 99
later institutions projected back to kings 101–9, 105
modern scepticism about kings 93–4
sequence and character of early monarchs 93–9
urban development 117–20
Regina (‘Queenie’), wife of Barates 509–10, 510
religion
basic characteristics of Roman religion 102–3
festivals 103, 104–6, 105, 275, 293, 281, 429
incorporation of new deities 179, 205–7, 206, 519
mythical role of Numa in foundation of religion 101–6, 105
permeable boundary between humans and gods 73, 275–7, 318, 384, 428–34
piety of Roman state and support of gods for Rome 101–2, 186, 193, 275, 282–3, 365
priests and priesthoods 103–4, 103, 147, 148, 179, 206, 207, 292, 368–9, 455, 519
see also Christianity; Great Mother goddess; Druids; Judaism
Remus see Romulus and Remus
Romana princeps (of Livia, ‘first lady’) 378
Romulus and Remus 54–6, 55, 71
death or apotheosis of Romulus 73–4
legacy and implications of the myth 68–9, 73–4, 215–6, 238, 527
monuments to Romulus (and Remus) 66, 66, 69–70, 369, 408
myth of birth and upbringing 57, 58–9, 63, 70, 72
myth of foundation of Rome and murder of Remus 59–60, 64–5
Rape of Sabines 60–64, 61, Pl. 3
Romulus and Augustus 354, 384
Romulus declares Rome an asylum 60, 66–7, 68
‘second Romulus’s 53–4, 56, 138
tomb 87–8, 92
Rubicon River 219, 286–7
S
Sabines 53, 80, 85, 202
joint Roman-Sabine community 64, 80–81
rape of 60–64, 61, 303–4, Pl. 3
Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) 38
History of Rome 62–3
on the faults and corruption of the Republic 38–9, 213, 265–6, 306, 516
The War against Catiline (Bellum Catilinae) 38–9, 42, 47, 176, 267
The War against Jugurtha 213, 264–7
Samnites and Samnite Wars (343 – 290 BCE) 85, 134, 137, 157–8, 159, 160, Pl. 6
Sardinia 175, 196, 229, 257, 259
Scipio family, tomb of see Barbatus, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, his tomb and epitaph
Scipio Nasica, Publius, insults plebeian voter 191–2
Scipio Nasica Serapio, Publius Cornelius, murderer of Tiberius Gracchus 224–7
senate
analysis of Polybius 188–9
attacks on senatorial competence to govern 264–7
attempts to police, or bypass, senate 223, 230–31, 262–4, 268–9
character and power at time of Cicero 32–3, 285–6
early history 70, 96–7, 99, 136, 152
fails to take effective control at regime change 393–4, 423
recruitment further afield 67, 156–7, 521–2
reforms of Augustus 354–5, 370, 373
reforms of Sulla 245–6
senators
debarred from large-scale trade 262, 326
distinctive clothing 32
privileges given by Augustus 373
relations between senators and emperor 375–6, 421–8
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, skit on the deification of Claudius 432
Sentinum, Battle of (295 BCE) 134–5, 158, 159, 160
Septimius Severus, Emperor 67, 521, 522, 528, Pl. 11
Septimontium (‘Seven hills’) ritual 80–81, 86
Servian Wall, Rome 118, 156, 157
Servius Tullius, King of Rome
Etruscan versions of his story (as Mastarna) 95–6, 114–17
murdered 100–101, 110
mythical founding father of political institutions 93, 106–9
Roman myths of his birth and succession 95, 97, 100, 110
temples attributed to him 110, 111, 141
see also Servian Wall
Sestius, Publius and family 326
Sicily 85, 119, 171, 175, 196, 204, 229, 292, Pl. 8
governorship of Verres 253–5
slavery 328–33
Cicero’s slave household 328–9, 331–3, 341
ex-slaves 68, 199, 295, 296, 330, 332–3, 441–2, 451–2, 523
Livia’s slave household 408–9
motives of slave ‘rebels’ 248–9, 332, 472
number of slaves in Italy 199, 329
other sources of slaves 316, 329
relations between master and slave 332–3, 469, Pl. 17
runaways 331–2, Pl. 16
slave trade 329, 503, 523
slavery for debt 145, 147–8
slaves as profit of war 154, 170, 178, 211, 328, 329
Spartacus’ ‘slave war’ 217–18, 248–50, 249
treatment 319, 329–30, 333, 344
Social War (90 – 88 BCE) 217, 241, 251–2
causes and aims of war 234–9, 239
consequences 239–41, 251
Spain
olive oil export trade 507–8, 508
silver mines 195–6
Sparta, population 98
Spartacus see slavery, Spartacus ‘slave war’
succession to imperial throne 97, 377–81, 414–20
Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus) 352, 405
mistranslation 396
personal anecdotes 359, 366, 370, 378, 380, 432, 458
The Twelve Caesars 400
Sulla Felix, Lucius Cornelius
campaign against Mithradates 243, 270
consulship 88 BCE and command in Social War 241
death 245
dictator 245
invasions of Rome 217, 219, 241–3, 269
proscriptions 217, 243–4
reform programme 245–7
Sulla, Publius (defended by Cicero) 328
T
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius on adopting a successor 419
analysis of autocracy and corruption 203, 400, 421
career under Domitian 426
on imperialism and provincial rule 494–7, 515–16, 535–6
on reign of Nero 403, 404, 416–17, 422, 432
Tanaquil, wife of Tarquinius Priscus 97, 110, 115
Tarquinius Priscus (‘Tarquin the Elder’), King of Rome 93, 109
Etruscan and Greek connections 100, 110, 11
3
murder of 97, 100, 110
Tarquinius, Sextus, assaults Lucretia 121–2
Tarquinius Superbus (‘Tarquin the Proud’), King of Rome 93, 109–10
Etruscan connection 110, 113
expulsion of 100, 123–5, 126, 132, 339
fanatical building projects 93, 120
murder of Servius Tullius 100–101, 110
taxation
direct taxation of Roman citizens suspended (167 BCE) 179, 201
provincial taxation through publicani in Republic 263
provincial taxation under emperors 488
provincial taxes raised through local elites 488, 492
varied taxation arrangements abroad 195–6
Teos, Turkey
letter of Roman official 102
Tean delegates to Rome 194–5, 197–8, 321
Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) 171, 172
theme of rape in comedies 202
Terentia, first wife of Cicero 302, 303, 310, 312, 319, 327
Teutoburg Forest, Battle of (9 CE) 480–81, 512
theatres
first stone theatre in Rome (Pompey’s) 214, 276, 338, 486
temporary theatre on Palatine, context of Gaius’ assassination 391, 393
theatre at Asculum, disruption 251–2, 298
theatre audience in Rome 202
Thrasea Paetus, Publius Clodius 41, 422, 427, 428
Tiber island, and origins of Republic 126–7, 128
Tiberius, Emperor 388, Pl. 20
at Augustus’ death 381, 384
honoured at Gytheum, Greece 431
lurid anecdotes 398–9
quip on provincial exploitation 488
relations with senate 421
retirement to Capri 390, 405
succession 378–80
Tiddis, Algeria 509
Timgad, Algeria 436–7, 438, 460, 462
Tiridates, King of Armenia 485–6
Tiro (Cicero’s slave secretary; later Marcus Tullius Tiro) 332–3
Titus, Emperor 388, 413, 415, 512
Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines 61, 64
Togidubnus (or Cogidubnus), Tiberius Claudius 493, 497, 513, 521
Trajan, Emperor 388, 440–41, 498, 521, 534
column 367, 483, 483
correspondence with Pliny 424–5, 475–80, 488, 489, 517–18
first ‘adopted’ emperor 418, 419–20,
first ‘provincial’ emperor 67, 418, 521
imperial expansion, death and triumph 483
tribunes of the people (tribuni plebis)
emperors claim ‘power’ of tribunes 247
origins 147
re-election 226, 232
right of veto 223, 247
Sulla’s attack 246–8
tribunes in the late Republic 216, 223, 281
Trimalchio 334, 441, 459
triumph ceremony
Cicero’s ambitions for triumph 300–301
claims of Antony’s triumph at Alexandria 347
display of conquest 201–2, 214, 290–91