as Republican hero 422–3, 426
usury 258, 339, 477
C
Caedicius, Marcus 155
Caesar, Gaius Julius 286, Pl. 9
adopts Octavian in his will 339–40
affair with Cleopatra 290, 292
ambitions of 220, 256, 278, 358
assassination of (44 BCE) 15, 74, 215, 216, 291, 295, 296, 337–8
campaigns in Gaul (58–50 BCE) 18, 214–15, 279, 283–5
and the Catilinarian conspiracy 26, 35
clementia 294–5
dictatorship and reforms 216, 245, 292–4, 487
divine status 74, 293, 340, 429, 431, 522
entertained to dinner by Cicero 301–2, 318
family background 47, 278
in ‘Gang of Three’ 218, 278, 279, 309
lands briefly in Britain 280, 284, 493
month renamed after him 275, 293, 369
portraits of 286, 357
rivalry and civil war with Pompey 219, 256, 278, 286–90
visits Alexander the Great’s tomb 161
Caesarion 339, 347, 348
Caledonia (Scotland) 203, 482, 494
calendar 104–6, 105, 292–3, 489–90
Caligula, Emperor see Gaius, Emperor
Calpurnia (Pliny the Younger’s third wife) 475, 477
Camillus, Marcus Furius 138, 154, 155–6, 370
Cannae, battle of (216 BCE) 23, 175–6, 177, 179, 180–84, 480
Caracalla, Emperor Pl. 11
assassination 528
gives citizenship to all free inhabitants of empire (212 CE) 17, 67, 334, 527–9,
Carrara marble quarries, North Italy 33
Carrhae, Battle of (53 BCE) 279, 280, 291
Carteia, Spain 200
Carthage
Aeneas and Dido in 75, 76, 180, 210, 351, 376–7
destruction and Roman decadence 213, 516
execution of Perpetua 518–20
resettlement 230, 292, 487
vs Rome in Punic Wars 38, 170, 172, 174, 174–6, 181, 209–10, 212–13
Cassius (Gaius Cassius Longinus) 337, 339, 341, 342, 343
as Republican hero 422–3, 426
Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) 21–52, 243–4, 320
as a byword for villainy 42–3
Cato the Elder (Marcus Porcius Cato, third/second centuries BCE) 204–5, 207, 211–12, 298
Cato the Younger (Marcus Porcius Cato, first century BCE) 279, 284–5, 289, 290, 295, 423
Catullus, Gaius Valerius 214, 284, 306
Caudine Forks, Battle of the (321 BCE) 157–8, 160, 161
census 101, 106, 107, 108–9, 236, 240, 362–3
Centuriate Assembly 108, 147, 190
Chaerea, Cassius 391, 392, 394 ‘chief praetor’ 131, 132
childbirth 313–16, 315, 316
children
child brides 311–13
child labour 448–9, 449, 454
death and ‘exposure’ of 22, 315–16, 144
Christianity 429–30, 516–20
and Pliny the Younger 476–7, 478–9, 517
Cicero, Marcus Tullius 21–52, 31, 299–334, Pls. 1 and 2
Against Catiline (In Catilinam; or the Catilinarians) 40–42
Against Verres 253–5
and Caesar’s assassination 337–9
death 26, 341–2
on death, and planned apotheosis, of Tullia 313, 317–18
on the early history of Rome 109, 110, 141, 149, 153
entertaining Caesar 301–2, 318
First Catilinarian speech 41–2, 43–5, 51
on the foundation of Rome 57–8
On his Consulship 39–40
Letters 39, 299, 300–303, 332–3
on Pompey’s command against Mithradates 269–73, 283
property and wealth 318–19, 325–8
as provincial governor 257–60, 275, 283–4
‘the Romulus of Arpinum’ 54, 56, 66
scorn for wage workers 441, 448, 451–2
on slaves 328–33
On the State 57, 65
vs Clodius 36, 218, 281–2
exile 36, 218, 281, 324
vs Verres 253–6, 257, 264, 269
Cicero, Quintus Tullius 301, 310–311, 332–3
Cilicia 257–9, 275, 283–4, 310, 328, 331, 477
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius 140, 140
Circus Maximus, Rome 118, 460, 462
citizenship
openness with citizenship 66–9
civis Romanus sum 137, 254
and Social War 155, 159, 165–6, 217, 233–41, 292
Caracalla gives Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of empire (212 CE) 17, 67, 334, 527–9
Civilis, Julius 513, 515
civilitas 356, 376, 406, 413–4, 421, 531
Claudius, Emperor 387, 388, 393–4, 395, 396–7, 400, 401, 417, 418, 433, 455–6, 469
advocates admitting Gauls to senate 67, 114, 156–7, 522
death 415
divine status 429, 432–4
gaming enthusiast 433, 458
invasion of Britain 367, 481–2
knowledge of Etruscan history 114–15, Pl. 7
and Livy 58
clementia (mercy) 294–5, 299
Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt 290, 292, 339, 346–51, 376–7
clients, and patrons 144
Cloaca Maxima (‘Great(est) Drain’) 119–20, 120
Clodia (‘Lesbia’) 214, 218, 305–7, 318
Clodius (Publius Clodius Pulcher) 218, 281–2, 283, 289, 319, 324, 342, 408
Cloelia 125
clothing 32, 355, 490, 491, 495, 525
Cnidos, Turkey: temple of Aphrodite 407, 410
Cocles, Horatius 124
coins and coinage
introduction 136
minting 45–6, 46, 47
portraits on coins 274–5, 293, 295, 353
in Second Punic War 183
in Social War 238–9, 239
Collatinus, Lucius Tarquinius 121, 127, 132
‘colonies’ (coloniae) 165–6, 200, 230, 292
settlements of veterans 248, 251, 342–3, 352, 436–7
‘colonies’ (Greek) 85
Colosseum, Rome 231, 334, 398, 413, 446–7, 461–2, 532, 534
Column of Marcus Aurelius 402–3, 402, 486, Pl. 10
Column of Trajan 367, 403, 483, 486
Commodus, Emperor 387, 388, 398, 420, 423–4
assassination (192 CE) 420, 528
Concord (Harmony) (goddess) 34–5, 233
Conflict of the Orders 137, 146–51, 167, 189–90, 216, 247
Constantine, Emperor 532–3, 533, 534
conversion to Christianity (337 CE) 17, 532
consulship
claimed exclusivity 148, 266–7
first consuls in Roman tradition 127, 129
historical origin of consulship 132–3, 151–2
lists 128, 132, 151, 267
manipulation of elections, 218, 279, 294
opened to plebeians 148, 152
principles of consulship 64, 127–8, 188–9
Roman dating by consuls 127–8
contiones (public meetings) 191, 237
contraception 314–15
Corinth, Greece
destruction of (146 BCE) 185, 210–13, 516
origin of family of Tarquinius Priscus 100
refounded 487
Corinthian bronze 210–11, 253
Coriolanus, Gaius Marcius 140–41, 217, 501
Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi 231
Crassus, Marcus Licinius
and Catilinarian conspiracy 26, 30, 35
defeat by Parthians at Carrhae and decapitation 279–80, 291
in ‘Gang of Three’ 218, 278, 279
wealth 26, 278, 319, 325
Cremutius Cordus, Aulus 423
crucifixion as punishment 120, 248, 254, 513, 521, 529
Cybele see Great Mother goddess
Cyprus, Cypriots 194, 258–9, 477
Cytheris, Volumnia 305
D
Dacia, Romania, conquered by Trajan 483, 483
decemviri (drafting Twelve Tables) 148–51
Delos 76, 235, 275
democratic aspects of Republican Rome 128–9, 188–92
Dendera, Egypt: temple of Hathor 498
dice games 287, 433, 455, 457, 458–61, 460, 472
dictatorship 131–2, 216, 217, 245, 282, 294
Dido, Queen of Carthage 75, 76, 180, 210, 351, 376
dignitas 285, 295
Dio, Lucius Cassius 423–4, 529
Dionysius (Cicero’s librarian) 331–2
Dionysius of Halicarnassus 65, 76, 78, 88, 119
disease 33, 57, 316, 439–30, 503
divorce 281, 302, 303, 311, 314, 319, 378
Dolabella, Publius Cornelius 302, 303, 310, 342–3, 346
Domitian, Emperor 388, 399, 400, 401, 403, 406, 415, 416, 425, 426, 427, 494
black dinner party 424
assassinated (96 CE) 414, 418
dowry 303, 315, 319
Druids 284, 489
Drusilla, Gaius’s sister 396, 429
Drusus, Marcus Livius (assassinated 91 BCE) 237, 325
Drusus, son of Livia 351, 378
Duris of Samos 135, 137, 159
E
economy
banks and credit 325
economic aspects of empire 178, 193, 195–6, 502–8, 508
consequence of expansion on Italian agriculture 221–3
problems in 63 BCE 45–6
Rome’s early trading relations 119, 153
slave trade 329, 503
Egnatius 65, 73
Egnatius Metellus, legendary wife beater, 305
Egnatius Rufus, Marcus, dissident under Augustus 375–6
Egypt
Augustus makes it a Roman possession 363–4
crime records 463, 464
images of Roman emperors 497, 498
invaded by Antiochus Epiphanes 194, 197
murder of Pompey 219, 287, 289–90
see also Alexandria, Antonius, Dendera, Marcus Cleopatra VII, Mons Claudianus
elections
end of popular elections 354–5, 372, 375
expense of electioneering 28
importance of the poor 190–91
local electoral slogans 454
methods of voting 190, 224, 227
organisation of voting assemblies 29, 108–9, 147
qualification for standing 189–90
whitened togas 32
elephants in combat 23, 170, 172, 174–5, 181
emergency powers decree 30, 35, 36, 232–3
empire
‘of annexation’ 255–6
depredations 254–5, 257–60, 263–4, 328, 488, 515–16
and early Roman literature 170–73
imperium 196, 255,
‘of obedience’ 192–7, 265, 273
Roman critics 18, 38, 213, 515–6
‘without limit’ 193, 215, 274, 364, 480–86,
employment 448–55
casual work 446
child labour 448–9, 449, 454
tombstones of workers 449, 449, 450–51, 450, 451–2, 452
trade associations and ‘strikes’ 453
working environment 454–5, Pl. 18
Ennius, Quintus 170, 171–2, 176–7, 182
equestrians/knights (equites) 32, 190, 262–4, 373, 409
Etruria, Etruscans 109–17, 123–4, 153–5, Pl. 7
Etruscan version of Roman history 114–17, Pl. 7
myth of Etruscan kings at Rome 109–110
Eurysaces, Marcus Vergilius 451–2, 452
Evander, King 78
F
Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator, Quintus 181–2, 281
Fannia, widow of Helvidius Priscus 427
Felicitas (Christian martyr) 519
‘Ficoroni Cista’ Pl. 5
Fidenae, near Rome 81–2, 83–4, 298
fire service 375, 463
Fishbourne Roman Palace, near Chichester 493
Flamininus, Titus Quinctius 431
food and dining 82, Pl. 14
bar culture 455–6, 456, 457
diet study in Herculaneum 16, 446
distribution and supply 228–30, 282, 445, 507–8
evidence in burials 81
food riots 469
hunger 46, 446, 447
fortune-telling 465–7
Forum
early remains beneath the Forum 81, 83, 117–18, 132
Forum of Augustus 366, 366, 369–70, 376
monuments in Roman Forum 24, 66, 69, 70, 74, 76, 100, 124, 125, 128, 162, 178, 233
see also black stone
François Tomb paintings, Vulci 115–17, Pl. 7
fratricide 59, 65, 528
Fregellae, Italy 234–5, 236
Fronto, Marcus Cornelius 411, 440–41
Frugi, Lucius Calpurnius Piso 229
Fulvia, wife of Marcus Antonius 30, 342, 345, 350
funerals 144, 187, 339, 381–84, 453
G
Gaius, Emperor (‘Caligula’) 387–98, 388, 390, 395, 401, 417, 423, 430, Pl. 13
assassination 387, 389–92
building projects 392, 396
nickname 390–91
reputation 392, 395, 396–7
Galba, Emperor 211, 388, 419
Galen 16, 33, 439, 462
gambling see dice games
‘Gang of Three’ (‘First Triumvirate’) 218, 278–86, 309, 321, 393
Gaul, Gauls
ancient anthropology of Gauls 283–4, 496
buried alive in Rome 180, 268–9
Caesar’s command and conquest 214–15, 279, 283–5
Caesar criticised for atrocities 18, 284–5
and Catilinarian conspiracy 34, 48
conflicts with Romans in Italy 159, 176, 183
occupation of Rome (390 BCE) 23, 137–8, 155–7, 167, 408
potential senators 67, 114, 156, 522
Germans, Roman conflict with 374–5, 402, 402, 513
Geta, Publius Septimius, brother of Caracalla 528, Pl. 11
Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 16, 17, 401–2, 406, 529
gladiators, gladiatorial shows 217–18, 231, 248–9, 249, 251, 307, 365, 447, 461–2, 500, 532
Golden House, Rome 404, 405, 407–8
Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius 221, 223, 228–33, 260–64
aims to extend Roman citizenship 233–4
compensation law 260–64
elected tribune twice 216, 232
grain distribution 216, 228–9,
murdered 216–17, 232–3
overseas colonies 230
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius 216, 221–7
land reform 216, 221, 222–4, 225, 236
murdered 216, 223–4, 225, 247, 291
stands for election again 223, 226
grain allowance 216, 228–9, 245, 282, 292, 362, 445
Great Mother goddess (Cybele) 179, 206–7, 206
Greek culture and Rome 171–3, 202–3, 210–12, 225, 243, 471–2, 498–502
Cato the Elder 204–205
Greeks in Italy 85, 119
buried alive in Rome 180, 268–9
hostages (168 – c.150 BCE) 184–5
H
Hadrian, Emperor 67, 122, 367, 388, 401, 402, 403, 405, 411–12, 412, 413, 420, 422, 430, 483, 492, 534
Hadrian’s Pantheon 334, 367, 504, 505–6
Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli 407, 407
Hadrian’s Wall 484–5, 485, 487, 490, 509
Hannibal
advises Antiochus 176
Africanus secures final defeat (202 BCE) 169–70, 212
as general 180–81
Second Punic War against 23, 27, 175–6, 180–4, 221
Helvidius Priscus, Quintus 427, 428
Herculaneum, southern Italy 173, 320, 445–6
diet study 16
local legal dispute 464–5
Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) 65, 73, 216, 278–9, 355, 499
housing
Cicero’s properties 318–19, 322–4, 325–6, 347, 408
early huts 81, 82, 83, 86, 94,
of elite 33, 118, 320–23
emperors’ palaces and estates 355–6, 406–8, 405, 407, 468
‘House of the Tragic Poet’, Pompeii 322
House of the Griffins, Palatine, Rome 319–20, 320
imperial pleasure barges Pl. 13
of non-elite 33, 443–4, 445, 447–8, 462
Pliny the Younger’s properties 435–6, 437, 507
human sacrifice 180, 268–9, 489, 512
I
imagines (wax masks of ancestors) 187, 323
imperium see empire
India 363, 502, 503
intermarriage (conubium) 62, 150, 165, 303
interrex (a ‘between king’) 97, 99
‘Italy’, as political identity 233–9
see also Social War
J
Jerusalem and Judaea 194, 273, 415, 511
Jewish revolt (66 CE – 73/4 CE) 413, 511–12, 512
Josephus, Titus Flavius 389, 514–15
on Gaius’ assassination 389–95
Juba (African prince) 61
Judaism 429, 517, 519
Jugurtha, King 213, 265–8, 516
Julia, daughter of Julius Caesar 309, 313
Julia, daughter of Augustus 351, 354, 359, 378, 379–80, 379, 390
Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus Pl. 11
juries and jury courts 218, 262, 263–4
‘just war’ 60, 62, 193
Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis) 68–9, 228, 438–9, 440, 447, 455, 458, 527
K
kings of Rome see regal period
knights see equestrians/knights (equites)
L
Laenas, Gaius Popilius 197
Latins and Latin rights 60, 63, 85, 153, 158–9, 165–6, 237
Latin War (341 – 338 BCE) 158–9
laundries 399, 448–9, 454–5, 470–71, Pl. 18
law 464–5
see also Twelve Tables
Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius 338, 341, 344, 346
‘Lesbia’ see Clodia
libertas, liberty 93, 125–30, 189, 227, 295, 299, 515
and Caesar’s assassination 216, 289, 291, 295, 296 295, 338
in Conflict of the Orders 146, 148, 150, 220
as goddess 36, 129,
under emperors 393–4, 401, 422–3, 515
life expectancy 316
literacy levels 470
Livia (Augusta), wife of Augustus 97, 377, 378, 380, 381, 384, 409, 414, 415, 418, 429, 432
in Augustan image making 305, 355–6, 377–8, 379, Pls. 12 and 20
her staff 409
Livy (Titus Livius) 42–3, 58, 138, 423
on battle forces and casualty figures 159, 177
compares Rome with Alexander the Great 158–9, 160–61, 163