20 Fragments of terracotta sculpture from temple in Rome, sixth century BCE, Musei Capitolini, Rome. Photo © The Art Archive/Museo Capitolino Rome/Araldo De Luca
21 Bronze liver from Piacenza, third-second century BCE, Museo Civico, Piacenza. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib./A. De Gregorio
22 The Cloaca Maxima, Rome. Photo courtesy of Soprintendenza Archeologica del Comune di Roma
23 Roman silver coin, 120s CE, showing Hadrian and Pudicitia. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
24 Temple of Castor and Pollux, Roman Forum. Photo © Gaertner/Alamy
25 The sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus, third century BCE, Musei Vaticani. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Library
26 Statue of Cincinnatus by E. Karkadoulias (1982), Cincinnati. Photo © Thomas G. Fritsch
27 Flamines from Ara Pacis, Rome. Photo © De Agostini Picture Library/G. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images
28 Sketch of the Servian Wall, Rome from H. F. Helmolt, The World’s History, Vol IV (Heinemann, 1902). Photo © The Print Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images
29 Third century BCE plate showing elephants, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome. Photo © DEA/G. Nimatallah/De Agostini/Getty Images
30 Portrait of Pyrrhus,? first century BCE, from Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. Photo © DEA/A. Dagli Orti/De Agostini/Getty Images
31 ‘Atilius Regulus taking leave of his family to begin his journey Carthage to face certain death’, by Sigismund Nappi (1826), Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Library
32 Portrait of Polybius from plaster cast in Museo Nazionale della Civiltà Romana, Rome. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Library
33 First-century BCE veristic portrait, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Altino. Photo © akg-images/Cameraphoto
34 Tomb portrait of a priest of the Great Mother, Musei Capitolini, Rome. Photo © DEA/A. Dagli Orti/De Agostini/Getty Images
35 Portrait of Pompey, Palazzo Spada, Rome. Photo © Galleria Spada, Rome, Italy/Mondadori Portfolio/Electa/Andrea Jemolo/Bridgeman Images
36 Roman silver coin, 113 BCE, showing voting procedures by secret ballot. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib./A. Rizzi
37 ‘Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi’ (1785) by Angelica Kauffman, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Photo © akg-images
38 Palazzo Barberini, Praeneste. Photo © Hemis/Alamy
39 Reconstruction of ancient sanctuary at Praeneste (after H. Kähler). Photo © DeAgostini/Getty Images
40 Silver coin minted by Italian allies in the Social War. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
41 Silver coin of Sulla, 84–83 BCE, showing head of Venus and symbols of victory. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
42 Pompeiian painting showing ‘Spartaks’, early first century BCE. Photo © Jackie and Bob Dunn www.pompeiiinpictures.com. Reproduced courtesy of Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Pompei, Ercolano e Stabia
43 Silver coin showing the head of Mithradates VI. Photo © akg-images/Interfoto
44 3D visualisation of the theatre of Pompey by Martin Blazeby, King’s College London. Reproduced courtesy of King’s College, London
45 Roman silver coin, 19–4 BCE, celebrating the return of Roman standards captured at the Battle of Carrhae. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
46 Portrait of Julius Caesar, possibly modern, British Museum. Photo © Planet News Archive/SSPL/Getty Images
47 Tombstone showing camel and family members,? second century CE, Museo Civico di Sulmona. Photo Museo della Diocesi-Valva Sulmona
48 Roman silver coin, 43–42 BCE, showing head of Brutus and symbols of liberation. Photo © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, 2015/Bridgeman Images
49 Roman painting (‘Aldobrandini Wedding’), first century BCE, Musei Vaticani. Photo © Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City/Bridgeman Images
50 Roman tombstone of Aurelius Hermia and Aurelia Philematium, first century BCE, British Museum. Photo © akg-images/Album/Prisma
51 A Roman midwife from Ostia, Museo Ostiense. Photo © The Art Archive/Alamy
52 Roman vaginal speculum, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. Photo © akg-images/Mondadori Portfolio/Alfredo e Pio Foglia
53 House of the Griffins, first century BCE, Palatine, Rome. Photo © Photo Scala, Florence, courtesy of Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali
54 Plan of ‘The House of the Tragic Poet’, Pompeii
55 Sculpture from Antikythera wreck, Greece, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Photo by R. Cormack, reproduced courtesy of the museum
56 Grand Congloué, cargo of amphorae. Photo © 2010 MIT. Courtesy of MIT Museum
57 Fragment from the ‘Laudatio Turiae’, first century BCE, Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano. Photo courtesy of Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma
58 Lead bullets from Perugia, first century BCE, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’Umbria. After L. Benedetti, Glandes Perusinae: revision e aggiornamenti (Quasar, 2012)
59 Triumphal scene from the Actium Monument, first century BCE, Nicopolis. After K. Zachos et al., Nikopolis: Revealing the city of Augustus’ Victory (FCMPA, 2008)
60 Tombstone of Marcus Billienus, first century BCE, Museo Civico di Vicenza, drawn J. Callan. After L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (Routledge, 2002), p. 114
61 Left, ‘Via Labicana Augustus’, Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme. Photo © DEA/A. Dagli Orti/De Agostini/Getty Images: Right, ‘Prima Porta Augustus’, Musei Vaticani. Photo © Erin Babnik/Alamy
62 The Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome. Photo by author
63 The Temple of Rome and Augustus, Ankara. Photo © Vanni Archive/Corbis
64 Reconstruction, the Forum of Augustus in Rome, G. Rehlender. Photo © Falkensteinfoto/Alamy
65 Detail of the processional frieze from the Ara Pacis, Rome. Photo © akg-images/Tristan Lafranchis
66 Family tree – a simplified version of the family and descendants of Augustus and Livia
67 Fourteen emperors: Tiberius (© De Agostini/G. Nimatallah/Getty Images); Gaius (© Prisma Archivo/Alamy); Claudius (© Marie-Lan Nguyen); Nero (© Alfredo Dagli Orti/The Art Archive/Corbis); Vespasian (© akg-images/Album/Prisma); Titus (© Anderson/Alinari via Getty Images); Domitian (© akg-images); Nerva (© DEA/G. Dagli Orti/De Agostini/Getty Images); Trajan (© akg-images/Erich Lessing); Hadrian (© Marie-Lan Nguyen); Antoninus Pius (© Bibi Saint-Pol); Marcus Aurelius (© DEA/G. Nimatallah/De Agostini/Getty Images); Lucius Verus (© The Art Archive/Alamy); Commodus (© Marie-Lan Nguyen)
68 Portrait of Gaius, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Photo © Louis le Grand/Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek
69 Portrait of Claudius adapted from portrait of Gaius, Centrale Montemartini, Rome. Photo © Bill Storage/Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini
70 Scene from Column of Marcus Aurelius, late second century CE. Photo © Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy/Alinari/Bridgeman Images
71 Painting from Nero’s Golden House, Rome. Photo © Werner Forman/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
72 Ornamental pool (‘Canopus’) in Hadrian’s villa, Tivoli, 120s–30s CE. Photo © Riccardo Sala/Alamy
73 Head of Hadrian in gilded bronze, from Velleia, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Parma. Photo © DEA/A. De Gregorio/De Agostini/Getty Images
74 Base of the Column of Antoninus Pius, showing apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina, 160s CE, Musei Vaticani. Photo © Vatican Museums and Galleries, Vatican City/Bridgeman Images
75 Reconstruction of Pliny’s villa by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1841). Photo © akg-images
76 The town of Timgad, Algeria. Photo by author
78 Forum scene from the Praedia of Julia Felix, Antichità di Ercolano Vol. 3 (1762), Plate
79
Roman insula block under Capitoline, Rome. Photo by author
80 Tombstone of Q. Artulus, child miner, second century CE, Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid. Photo © Sebastià Giralt/Courtesy Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid
81 Tombstone of Caius Pupius Amicus, dyer, first century CE, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Parma. Photo © Alinari Archives, Florence
82 Marble relief showing poultry seller’s stall, second century CE, Ostia, Museo Ostiense. Photo © Museo Ostiense, Ostia Antica, Rome, Italy/Roger-Viollet, Paris/Bridgeman Images
83 Tomb of Eurysaces, Rome, first century BCE. Photo © akg-images/Bildarchiv Monheim/Schütze/Rodemann
84 Roman bar, Pompeii. Photo © DeAgostini/Getty Images
85 Nineteenth-century copy of painting from the Bar of Salvius, Pompeii, from E. Presuhn, Pompeji (Weigel, 1882). Photo © akg-images/Florilegius
86 Gaming board from tomb outside Rome,? first century CE. Photo © The Trustees of the British Museum
87 Statue of the snake god Glycon, second century CE, Museum of National History and Archaeology, Constanta. Photo © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib./G. Dagli Orti
88 Bronze horse head found at Waldgirmes, Germany, first century CE. Photo © PA Images
89 Scene from Column of Trajan, completed 113 CE, Rome. Photo © DeAgostini/Getty Images
90 Hadrian’s Wall, near Hexham, Northumberland, England. Photo by author
91 Panel from Sebasteion, Aphrodisias, showing Augustus, ‘Victory’ and prisoners, first century CE, Aphrodisias Museum. Photo by author. Courtesy New York University Excavations at Aphrodisias
92 Restored inscription recording the dedication of a temple to Neptune and Minerva, first century CE, Chichester. Courtesy CSAD/RIB/The Haverfield Bequest
93 Portrait of Trajan in the guise of a pharaoh, Dendera, Egypt. Photo © De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images
94 Façade of Temple of Sulis Minerva,? second century CE, Bath. Photo © World History Archive/Alamy
95 Indian ivory statuette from Pompeii. Photo courtesy Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, 149425
96 The Pantheon, second century CE, Rome. Photo © akg-images/Andrea Jemolo
97 The site of Mons Claudianus, Egypt. Photo © rome101.com
98 Aerial view of Monte Testaccio, Rome. Photo © Sebastian Contreras Rodriguez
99 Tombstone of Regina, second century CE, Arbeia Roman Fort and Museum. Photo © Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums/Bridgeman Images
100 Arch of Titus, late first century CE, Rome. Photo © PhotoStock-Israel/Alamy
101 Statue of Boudicca, T. Thorneycroft, 1850s–1902 Victoria Embankment, London. Photo © Chris Lawrence/Alamy
102 Figure of Zoilos and reconstruction of the sculpture on Zoilos’ tomb. Drawing: C. H. Hallett. From R. R. R. Smith, The Monument of C. Julius Zoilos: Aphrodisias I (Mainz 1994), Fig. 5
103 The Arch of Constantine, 315 CE, Rome. Photo © Chris Selby/Alamy
While every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders of illustrations, the author and publishers would be grateful for information about any illustrations where they have been unable to trace them, and would be glad to make amendments in further editions.
INDEX
Figures in italics refer to captions
A
Abdera, northern Greece; Abderans 194–5, 198
Actium, Battle of (31 BCE) 347–50, 351, 352, 352, Pl. 19
adoption 418–20, 425, 528
Aemilianus, Publius Cornelius Scipio 170, 172, 176, 185, 200, 209, 210, 211, 225, 236, 265, 418, 487
Aemilius Paullus, Lucius, natural father of Scipio Aemilianus 170, 418
defeats Perseus of Macedon 176, 184, 194, 196, 199, 201
on how to organise a battle 183
Aeneas 74–7
as founder of Rome 27, 56, 74–5, 471
and Dido 75, 180, 210, 351, 376–7
Aesop: Aesop’s Fables 467
Africa
exotic animals captured 504
province of 265
senators and emperors from 67, 521–2
see also Carthage; Jugurtha
Africanus, Publius Cornelius Scipio 169–70, 171, 181–2, 204, 277, 281
Agricola, Gnaeus Julius 494–5, 521
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 348, 364, 378–9, 379, 380, 504, Pl. 21
Agrippina, mother of Gaius 390
Agrippina, mother of Nero 37, 400–401, 403, 415
Agrippina, Vipsania, wife of Tiberius 379
Alba Longa, Alban Hills, Italy 58, 77, 92, 110
Alexander the Great
emulated 161, 176, 214, 258 270, 273, 284, 392, 477
Livy compares with Romans 158, 161
tomb visited 161
Alexandria, Egypt 33, 290, 292, 346, 347, 348
Allia, Battle of the (390 BCE) 155, 157
alliances, of Rome and other Italians 62, 139, 161, 163–6
Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis), Rome 148, 379
Amulius, king of Alba Longa 58, 59
Ancus Marcius, King of Rome 93, 95, 100
animals
animal fables 467–8
animal sacrifice 103, 112, 224, 431
in triumphal processions 201–2
slaughter of exotic animals 258, 504
wild beast hunts 365, 447, 500, 532
Ankyra (modern Ankara), Turkey: Temple of Rome and Augustus 360–61, 362
Antikythera wreck 323, 324
Antinous 430
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, King of Syria 191, 194, 197, 200
Antiochus ‘the Great’, King of Syria 169, 170, 176, 191
Antium (modern Anzio), Italy 104, 105, 162
Antoninus Pius, Emperor 388, 401, 413, 433, 500
Antonius, Lucius, brother of Marcus 342, 345
Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony) 253, 305, 380
supporter of Caesar 293–4, 339
ally and rival of Octavian, in triumvirate 340, 345–6, 347, 349–50, 352–3, 377, 378
and Cicero 325, 341–2
and Cleopatra 290, 346–7, 349–50
defeat 347–8
see also Fulvia; Octavia
Aphrodisias, Turkey 486, 523–5, 524
apotheosis 73–4, 303, 317–18, 432–4, 433
Appius Claudius (decemvir) 149
Appius Claudius Caecus 136, 149
Arbeia (modern South Shields) 510
Arch of Constantine, Rome 532–3, 533
Arch of Titus (and Vespasian), Rome 319, 511, 512
archaeology of early Rome 81–9
precise dating 83–4
Archias (Aulus Licinius Archias) 40, 240–41
Aristides, Publius Aelius: Speech in Honour of Rome 500
Armenia 194, 347, 350
Arminius (‘Herman the German’) 481, 511, 512, 513
army
administrative role under emperors 490–91
Augustus’ reforms 370, 371–2
contributions to Roman forces by allies 163–4
payment of soldiers 155
Polybius on military organisation 186–7
problems of veteran settlements 248, 251, 267, 342–3
recruitment from Roman citizens 221–2, 267–8
Arpinum, Italy 28, 54, 319, 325
Asculum, central Italy 237, 250, 251–2, 298
Asia, province of 263, 278, 369, 521
Asiaticus, Lucius Cornelius Scipio 170, 176, 191
Astura island 313, 317, 318, 321
Athens, similarities and differences with Rome 67, 68, 77, 128, 143, 150, 188, 202, 307
population 98, 135
Attalus III, King of Pergamum 223, 226
Atticus, Titus Pomponius 39, 311
Book of Chronology 71
letters to 44, 69, 258, 262, 275, 301, 317, 331, 346
Augustus, Emperor 337–85, 356, Pls. 20, 21
building 365–7, 366, 407
civilitas of 356, 376, 406, 413–14
claims descent from Aeneas 356, 369, 376
death an
d funeral (14 CE) 97, 380–81, 384, 387, 414
divine status 384, 429, 431, 432–3
family and descendants 305, 382–3, 391
generosity to ordinary citizens 364–5
images of 356–8, 356
military successes and reverses 363–4, 480–81, 483, 487
month renamed after him 275, 369
name 340, 354
problems and successions 374–80
reforms and legislation 309, 340, 355, 363
Res Gestae (‘What I Did’) 360–68, 362, 372, 374–5
return of Roman standards (19 BCE) 280, 280
staff 408–9
template of imperial rule 354, 412–14, 420, 481, 530, 531–2
visits Alexander the Great’s tomb 161
‘west’ vs ‘east’ 349–50
see also Octavian
B
Balbus, Lucius Cornelius 373–4
bar culture 455–61, 456, 457, 471–2, Pl. 17
Barbatus, Lucius Cornelius Scipio 138, 160, 412
his tomb and epitaph 132–4, 133, 135, 136, 139, 153, 167, 168, 169, 305, 449–50
Barbatus’ son, epitaph of 169, 175
Bath (Aquae Sulis), Britain 463, 465, 498
temple of Sulis Minerva, Bath 497–8, 499
baths, public 233, 307, 439, 492, 528
beards 411–12, 412
beer 492, 496
beggars 444, 444
Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius 282–3, 289
Bithynia, province of 425, 475–80, 487, 489, 520
black stone, Roman Forum, remains under 87–9, 88, 91–4, 91, 118, 335
Boni, Giacomo 87, 88, 94, 95
Boudicca (Buduica or Boadicea) 511, 513–16
statue, Thames Embankment, London 515
‘Bovillae, Battle of’ 218, 281
‘bread and circuses’ (panem et circenses) 228, 440
Britain
Caesar’s landing in 280, 284, 482
Druids 284, 489
Roman invasion (43 CE) 367, 442, 481–2
‘Romanisation’ of 442, 443, 494–6, 497–8, 499
Strabo’s assessment 482–3
Tacitus on Roman power in 18, 494–6, 515–16
see also Agricola; Hadrian’s Wall; Lollius Urbicus; Vindolanda
Brutus, Lucius Junius (founder of Republic) 123, 127, 129, 132, 151, 339
Brutus, Marcus Junius (assassin of Caesar) 123, 295, 305, 337–9, 341–2, 422, 426
depicted on coinage 295, 353