Terrorist Attacks upon the United states, The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of
the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (Washington, DC:
U.s. Government printing Office, 2004), 35.
2. ibid.
3. White House, “remarks by the president after Two planes Crash into World
Trade Center,” 2001, available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/
releases/2001/09/20010911.html (accessed January 23, 2010).
4. Before the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the October 23, 1983, truck bombings of U.s. and
French military barracks in Beirut, lebanon, stood as the most deadly act of terrorism
in U.s. history. The 1983 attacks claimed a total of 295 lives. The deadliest pre-9/11 act
of terrorism on U.s. soil was the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, which resulted in 168
deaths.
5. national Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United states, The 9/11
Commission Report.
6. Centers for Disease Control and prevention, “rapid Assessment of injuries
among survivors of the Terrorist Attack on the World Trade Center—new york City,
september 2001,” Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 51, no. 1 (2002): 1–5.
7. U.s. Government Accountability Office, “september 11: Health effects in the
Aftermath of the World Trade Center Attack,” GAO-04–1068T, 2004, available at www.
gao.gov/new.items/d041068t.pdf (accessed January 23, 2010).
8. irwin Garfinkel, neeraj Kaushal, Julien Teitler, and sandra Garcia, “vulnerability
and resilience: new yorkers response to 9/11,” in Wounded City: The Social Impact of
9/11, ed. nancy Foner (new york: russell sage Foundation, 2005), 28–75.
9. Centers for Disease Control and prevention, “mental Health status of World
Trade Center rescue and recovery Workers and volunteers—new york City, July
2002—August 2004.” Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 53, no. 35 (2004): 812–
815.10. Karen seeley, “The psychological Treatment of Trauma and the Trauma of
psychological Treatment: Talking to psychotherapists about 9/11,” in Wounded City:
The Social Impact of 9/11, 263–289.
11. mark A. schuster, Bradley D. stein, lisa H. Jaycox, rebecca l. Collins, Grant
n. marshall, marc n. elliott, Annie J. Zhou, David e. Kanouse, Janina l. morrison, and
sandra H. Berry, “A national survey of stress reactions after the september 11, 2001,
Terrorist Attacks,” New England Journal of Medicine 345, no. 20 (2001): 1507–1512.
12. Garfinkel et al., “vulnerability and resilience”; William e. schlenger, Juesta m.
Caddell, lori ebert, B. Kathleen Jordan, Kathryn m. rourke, David Wilson, lisa Thalji,
J. michael Dennis, John A. Fairbank, and richard A. Kulka, “psychological reactions
to Terrorist Attacks: Findings from the national study of Americans’ reactions to
september 11,” Journal of the American Medical Association 288, no. 5 (2002): 581–588.
13. Alan elsner, “An Anxious nation,” in After September 11: New York and the
World, ed. reuters staff (Upper saddle river, nJ: pearson education, 2003), 76–145.
14. U.s. Government Accountability Office, “review of studies of the economic impact
of the september 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks on the World Trade Center,” GAO-02–700r,
2002, available at www.gao.gov/new.items/d02700r.pdf (accessed January 23, 2010).
188 / Notes to Chapter 2
15. Howard Chernick, ed., “introduction,” in Resilient City: The Economic Impact of
9/11 (new york: russell sage Foundation, 2005), 1–20.
16. Brenda D. phillips, Disaster Recovery (Boca raton, Fl: CrC press, 2009).
17. ibid., 292.
18. seana lowe and Alice Fothergill, “A need to Help: emergent volunteer Behavior
after september 11,” in Beyond September 11: An Account of Post-Disaster Research, ed.
J. l. monday (Boulder: institute of Behavioral science, University of Colorado, 2003),
293–314; monica schoch-spana, “educating, informing, and mobilizing the public,”
in Terrorism and Public Health: A Balanced Approach to Strengthening Systems and
Protecting People, ed. B. s. levy and v. W. sidel (new york: Oxford University press,
2003), 118–135; Gerald Turkel, “sudden solidarity and the rush to normalization:
Toward an Alternative Approach,” Sociological Focus 35, no. 1 (2002): 73–79.
19. Arthur spiegelman and patrick rizzo, “new york: An end to innocence,” in
After September 11: New York and the World, 2–75.
20. richard T. Weber, David A. mcentire, and robie J. robinson, “public/private
Collaboration in Disaster: implications for the World Trade Center Terrorist Attacks,”
Quick response report #155, 2002, Boulder: natural Hazards research and Applications
information Center, University of Colorado, available at www.colorado.edu/hazards/
research/qr/qr155/qr155.html (accessed January 23, 2010).
21. samuel Henry prince, Catastrophe and Social Change (new york: Columbia
University press, 1920).
22. robert i. Kutak, “The sociology of Crises: The louisville Flood of 1937,” Social
Forces 17 (1938): 66–72.
23. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Tornado in Worcester (Washington, DC: Committee on
Disaster studies, national Academy of sciences, national research Council, 1956).
24. martha Wolfenstein, Disaster: A Psychological Essay (Glencoe, il: Free press,
1957).
25. Allen H. Barton, Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Collective
Stress Situations (Garden City, ny: Doubleday, 1969).
26. Charles e. Fritz, “Disaster,” in Contemporary Social Problems, ed. r. K. merton
and r. A. nisbet (new york: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), 651–694.
27. David Alexander, “nature’s impartiality, man’s inhumanity: reflections on
Terrorism and World Crisis in a Context of Historical Disaster,” Disasters 26, no. 1
(2002): 1–9; Dennis s. mileti, “rising from the Ashes: in Disasters, We Are All the
same,” Denver Post, september 16, 2001, e-1; Gary r. Webb, “sociology, Disasters, and
Terrorism: Understanding Threats of the new millennium,” Sociological Focus 35, no.
1 (2002): 87–95.
28. Kai T. erikson, A New Species of Trouble: The Human Experience of Modern
Disasters (new york: W. W. norton, 1994).
29. mohamed nimer, “muslims in America after 9/11,” Journal of Islamic Law and
Culture 7, no. 2 (2002): 1–35.
30. yvonne yazbeck Haddad, Not Quite American? The Shaping of Arab and Muslim
Identity in the United States (Waco, TX: Baylor University press, 2004).
31. American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, “1991 report on Anti-
Arab Hate Crimes” (report, American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee research
institute, Washington, DC, 1992).
Notes to Chapter 2 / 189
32. ibid.
33. ibid.
34. Amardeep singh, “‘We Are not the enemy’: Hate Crimes against Arabs,
muslims, and Those perceived to Be Arab or muslim after september 11,” Human Rights
Watch Report 14, no. 6 (2002): 1–42.
35. Council on American-islamic relations, “The price of ignorance” (report,
American-muslim research Center, Washington, DC, 1996).
36. mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious
Violence (Berkeley: University of California press, 2000).
37. Haddad,
Not Quite American? 42–43.
38. Chrystie Flournoy swiney, “racial profiling of Arabs and muslims in the U.s.:
Historical, empirical, and legal Analysis Applied to the War on Terrorism,” Muslim
World Journal of Human Rights 3, no. 1 (2006): 1–36.
39. Council on American-islamic relations, “American muslims: One year after
9/11” (report, Council on American-islamic relations research Center, Washington,
DC, 2002), 3.
40. Despite the many statements of grief and condemnations of terrorism that
muslim American groups and leaders issued, numerous unsubstantiated and inflamma-
tory references appeared in newspapers, on television, and on talk radio about muslims’
alleged “silence” after the 9/11 attacks. see riad Z. Abdelkarim and Jason erb, “How
American muslims Really responded to the events of september 11,” CounterPunch,
september 7, 2002, available at www.counterpunch.org/riad0907.html (accessed may 3,
2010).
41. nada O. el sawy, “islam and violence: The American media link” (master’s
thesis, Columbia University, 2002).
42. Geneive Abdo, Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11 (new
york: Oxford University press, 2006).
43. Jacques steinberg, “The Koran: experts say bin laden is Distorting sacred Text,”
New York Times, October 8, 2001, B-8.
44. Alexa Capeloto, “Hijab Campaign: Women Don scarves in solidarity with
Female muslims,” Detroit Free Press, October 18, 2001, 1.
45. Qamar-ul Huda, “The Diversity of muslims in the United states: views as
Americans” (report, United states institute of peace, Washington, DC, 2006).
46. southern poverty law Center, “raging against the Other: september’s Terrorist
strikes Trigger a violent Outbreak of American Xenophobia,” Intelligence Report, 2001,
available at www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=159 (accessed January
23, 2010).
47. Alana semuels, “Workplace Bias against muslims, Arabs on rise, Advocates
say,” Los Angeles Times, October 3, 2006, available at http://articles.latimes.com/2006/
oct/03/business/fi-eeoc3 (accessed may 3, 2010).
48. U.s. Department of Justice, Civil rights Division, “initiative to Combat post-
9/11 Discriminatory Backlash,” 2008, available at www.usdoj.gov/crt/legalinfo/nordwg
_mission.php (accessed January 23, 2010).
49. U.s. Department of Justice, Civil rights Division, “remarks of president George
W. Bush at the islamic Center, september 17, 2001,” available at www.usdoj.gov/crt/
legalinfo/bushremarks.html (accessed January 23, 2010).
190 / Notes to Chapter 2
50. Federal Bureau of investigation Uniform Crime reporting program, “Hate
Crime statistics 2001,” available at www.fbi.gov/ucr/01hate.pdf (accessed January 23,
2010).
51. The United states was not the only place where anti-islamic incidents increased.
The european monitoring Center on racism and Xenophobia reported that muslims
across Western europe experienced growing hostility and physical attacks after 9/11.
in Britain alone, more than three hundred assaults on muslims were reported after the
terrorist attacks. A post-9/11 survey of more than five thousand Australians revealed
strong anti-muslim sentiment among the population. more than half of those surveyed
said they would be concerned if a relative married a muslim, about 45 percent said that
some cultural groups do not belong in Australia, and almost half believed Australia was
weakened by people of different ethnic groups. see Joel s. Fetzer and J. Christopher
soper, “The roots of public Attitudes toward state Accommodation of european
muslims’ religious practices before and after september 11,” Journal for the Scientific
Study of Religion 42, no. 2 (2003): 247–258; Dominic Hughes, “Anti-muslim shift in
Australia,” BBC News, February 19, 2003, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-
pacific/2778821.stm (accessed may 3, 2010).
52. Federal Bureau of investigation Uniform Crime reporting program, “Hate
Crime statistics 2001.”
53. Council on American-islamic relations, “American muslims.”
54. singh, “‘We Are not the enemy,’” 18.
55. Kevin Anderson, “U.s. muslims suffer Backlash,” BBC News World Edition,
november 19, 2002, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2488829.stm
(accessed may 3, 2010).
56. After Waqar Hasan’s murder, Democratic Congressional representative rush
Holt ushered a private relief bill through Congress to gain legal residency for the Hasan
family. Hasan’s wife and four daughters were faced with deportation, because their visas
and green card applications were dependent upon his pending American citizenship. in
2004, the U.s. House of representatives passed Hr 867, granting the family permanent
residency.
57. “Jury Convicts Texan in Killing Tied to 9/11,” New York Times, April 3, 2002,
available at www.nytimes.com/2002/04/03/us/jury-convicts-texan-in-killing-tied-to-
9-11.html?pagewanted=1 (accessed may 3, 2010).
58. robert e. pierre, “victims of Hate, now Feeling Forgotten,” Washington Post,
september 14, 2002, A-1.
59. robert F. Worth, “police Arrest Brooklyn man in slayings of Four shopkeepers,”
New York Times, march 31, 2003, F-1.
60. singh, “‘We Are not the enemy.’”
61. louise Cainkar, “The impact of the september 11 Attacks on Arab and muslim
Communities in the United states,” in The Maze of Fear: Security and Migration after
62. Derek Thomson, “Arab-Americans Feel Backlash: Firebombs, name-Calling,
Threats reported,” ABC News, september 14, 2001, available at http://abcnews.go.com/
Us/story?id=92461&page=1 (accessed may 3, 2010).
63. in his analysis of anti-islamic hate crime, Jeffrey Kaplan asserts that the num-
ber of violent acts perpetrated against muslim Americans dropped off rapidly after
Notes to Chapter 2 / 191
september 11 for four primary reasons: (1) leadership in the form of effective inter-
vention by president Bush; (2) decisive law enforcement intervention on the federal
and local levels; (3) grassroots outreach to muslims by religious, civic, and educational
groups; and (4) moral ambiguity in the rapid dissolution of American consensus over
the War on Terror following the invasion of iraq. Kaplan’s argument is persuasive, but
i would also contend that muslims themselves played a key role in stemming the tide
of violence. islamic advocacy groups, muslim religious leaders, and ordinary muslim
Americans worked tirelessly after september 11 to dispel stereotypes about their faith
and to demonstrate their loyalty to the United states. see Jeffrey Kaplan, “islamophobia
in America? september 11 and islamophobic Hate Crime,” Terrorism and Political
Violence 18, no. 1 (2006): 1–33.
64. Caroline Wolf Harlow, “Hate Crime reported by victims and police” (report,
U.s. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice statistics, Washington, DC, 2005).
65. equal employment Opportunity Commission Fact sheet, “muslim/Arab
employment Discrimination Charges since 9/11” (report, U.s. equal employment
Opportunity Commission, Wash
ington, DC, 2002).
66. singh, “‘We Are not the enemy,’” 16.
67. south Asian American leaders of Tomorrow, “American Backlash: Terrorists
Bring War Home in more Ways than One” (report, south Asian American leaders of
Tomorrow, Washington, DC, 2001).
68. Hussein ibish, ed., “report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination against
Arab Americans: The post september 11 Backlash” (report, American-Arab Anti-
Discrimination Committee research institute, Washington, DC, 2003).
69. sikh American legal Defense and educational Fund, “victims of Hate,” 2008,
available at www.saldef.org (accessed January 23, 2010).
70. Kush Bambrah, rosaline Chan, June Han, sin yen ling, Cezar B. lopez, and
Dennis ming Wu, “Backlash Final report: 2001 Audit of violence against Asian pacific
Americans” (report, national Asian pacific American legal Consortium, Washington,
DC, 2001).
71. singh, “‘We Are not the enemy,’” 15.
72. Council on American-islamic relations, “American muslims: One year after
9/11.”73. For an excellent overview of the policy response in the aftermath of 9/11, see
michael Welch, Scapegoats of September 11th: Hate Crimes and State Crimes in the War
on Terror (new Brunswick, nJ: rutgers University press, 2006).
74. Aladdin elaasar, Silent Victims: The Plight of Arab and Muslim Americans in Post
9/11 America (Bloomington, in: AuthorHouse, 2004).
75. elsner, “An Anxious nation.”
76. lewis seiler and Dan Hamburg, “rule by Fear or rule by law?” San Francisco
Chronicle, February 4, 2008, B-7.
77. American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, “2003–2007 report on Hate
Crimes and Discrimination against Arab Americans” (report, American-Arab Anti-
Discrimination Committee research institute, Washington, DC, 2008).
78. Council on American-islamic relations, “The status of muslim Civil rights in
the United states: Unequal protection” (report, Council on American-islamic relations
research Center, Washington, DC, 2005).
192 / Notes to Chapter 2
79. U.s. Department of Justice, Office of the inspector General, “The september
11 Detainees: A review of the Treatment of Aliens Held on immigration Charges
in Connection with the investigation of the september 11 Attacks” (report, U.s.
Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2003).