on islam after 9/11,” Review of Religious Research 47, no. 2 (2005): 162–174.
6. Although some condemned Franklin Graham’s hateful rhetoric, others celebrated
it. The evangelical news weekly World gave its annual “Daniel of the year Award”
(named after the Old Testament prophet who braved a lions’ den) to Graham for “tell-
ing the hard truths about islam” as well as for standing up for “Christian convictions”
182 / Notes to Chapter 1
in the face of a religiously and culturally relativistic society. see Cimino, “‘no God in
Common,’” 170.
7. Council on American-islamic relations, “American muslims: One year after
9/11” (report, Council on American-islamic relations research Center, Washington,
DC, 2002), 23.
8. Hal lindsey, The Everlasting Hatred: The Roots of Jihad (murrieta, CA: Oracle
House publishing, 2002), 10.
9. Jason vest, “exit Jesse, enter saxby,” The Nation, november 12, 2002, available at
www.thenation.com/doc/20021125/vest20021110 (accessed may 2, 2010).
10. ibid.
11. “students Discuss Koran Book after Battle,” ABC News, August 25, 2002, avail-
able at http://abcnews.go.com/nightline/story?id=128548&page=1 (accessed may 2,
2010).
12. media matters for America, “savage: To ‘save the United states,’ lawmakers
should institute ‘Outright Ban on muslim immigration’ and on ‘The Construction of
mosques,’” Media Matters for America, november 29, 2006, available at http://media-
matters.org/mmtv/200611290005 (accessed may 2, 2010).
13. Teresa Watanabe, “Frustrated U.s. muslims Feel marginalized Again,” Los
Angeles Times, september 27, 2002, available at http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/27/
local/me-muslim27(accessed June 30, 2010).
14. Cal Thomas, “it’s not Over,” Townhall.com, October 29, 2002, available at http://
townhall.com/columnists/CalThomas/2002/10/29/its_not_over (accessed may 2, 2010).
15. robert K. merton, “Foreword,” in A. H. Barton, Communities in Disaster: A
Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations (Garden City, ny: Doubleday, 1969),
vii–xxxvii.
16. Charles e. Fritz, “Disaster,” in Contemporary Social Problems, ed. r. K. merton
and r. A. nisbet (new york: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), 651–694.
17. The interviews that i conducted during the initial phases of this project were with
college students. As the study developed, i expanded the sample to include college stu-
dents and young professionals. This expansion allowed me to understand the issues that
muslims faced in higher education and employment (see Chapter 4). in addition, many
of the interviewees graduated from college during the two-year period of this study, so i
was able to track their experiences as they applied for jobs and graduate school or mar-
ried and started families.
18. some researchers include in the second generation those children born abroad
who came to the United states before age twelve. However, most scholars now make a
distinction between the second and 1.5 generation to differentiate American-born chil-
dren of immigrants (second generation) from those children who migrated to the United
states before reaching adulthood (1.5 generation).
19. standard racial and ethnic categories do not depict the true diversity of the sam-
ple population, as the interviewees identified with more than thirty different nationalities
and a variety of cultures. The following are some of those backgrounds as reported by the
participants in this study: Afghanistan, Albania, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Canada, egypt,
Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Guinea, Guyana, india, indonesia, iran, iraq, Japan,
Kuwait, lebanon, malaysia, morocco, pakistan, palestine, puerto rico, saudi Arabia,
syria, Trinidad, Turkey, United states, Uzbekistan, yemen, and Zimbabwe.
Notes to Chapter 1 / 183
20. lori peek and Alice Fothergill, “Using Focus Groups: lessons from studying Day-
care Centers, 9/11, and Hurricane Katrina,” Qualitative Research 9, no. 1 (2009): 31–59.
21. The following two volumes offer excellent overviews of methodological tech-
niques and the special challenges of disaster research: Fran H. norris, sandro Galea,
matthew J. Friedman, and patricia J. Watson, eds., Methods for Disaster Mental Health
Research (new york: Guilford press, 2006); robert A. stallings, ed., Methods of Disaster
Research (philadelphia: Xlibris, 2002).
22. Brenda phillips, “Qualitative methods and Disaster research,” in Methods of
23. sarah michaels, “perishable information, enduring insights? Understanding
Quick response research,” in Beyond September 11: An Account of Post-Disaster
Research, ed. J. l. monday (Boulder: institute of Behavioral science, University of
Colorado, 2003), 15–48.
24. The question of whether it is more effective to conduct fieldwork as an “insider”
or an “outsider” has been the subject of substantial scholarly debate. indeed, many writ-
ings on fieldwork have, with increasing attention and sensitivity, documented the myriad
contexts and situations in which the ascribed statuses—such as race, gender, sexuality,
age, or ethnicity—of the interviewer and interviewees can hinder or facilitate the acquisi-
tion of rich data. For example, feminist theorists contend that the researcher’s identity
and social location affect all aspects of the research process—from the articulation of a
research question to the analysis and presentation of data—and therefore they encour-
age “strong reflexivity” and argue that researchers should subject themselves to the same
level of scrutiny they direct toward the subjects of their inquiry.
most significant to this study, i was a religious outsider; i identify as a nondenomi-
national Christian, and all the interviewees were muslim. in most cases, i was also a
racial/ethnic outsider; i am white, and the majority of the participants were not. At
the same time, i shared many values and characteristics with the participants. i, like
many of my interviewees, was a student when i started this project. i was of a similar
age, and i came from the same region as some of the respondents. Also, i am female,
as were the majority of the participants. The point here is not to demonstrate that i did
or did not share certain characteristics with the participants; rather, it is to emphasize
that the notions of “insider” and “outsider” are fluid and depend on situational contexts
and social settings. indeed, in the field, differences and similarities are evaluated by the
observer and the observed in many ways. sharing certain characteristics does not guar-
antee that a researcher will become an “insider,” nor does having differences mean that
the researcher will always be an “outsider.”
For thoughtful examinations of the insider versus outsider debate, see John lofland,
David snow, leon Anderson, and lyn H. lofland, Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide
to Qualitative Observation and Analysis, 4th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson
learning, 2006); Jill A. mcCorkel and Kristen myers, “What Difference Does Difference
make? position and privilege in the Field,” Qualitative Sociology 26, no. 2 (2
003): 199–
231; nancy A. naples, “The Outsider phenomenon,” in Feminist Perspectives on Social
Research, ed. s. n. Hesse-Biber and m. l. yaiser (new york: Oxford University press,
2004), 373–381.
25. Other disaster researchers have documented that respondents may actually
receive emotional benefits from participating in interviews following catastrophic events.
184 / Notes to Chapter 1
This seemed to be particularly true in this study, as several of the participants com-
mented that they genuinely appreciated having the opportunity to talk to someone about
their experiences.
26. Katherine pratt ewing, “introduction,” in Being and Belonging: Muslims in the
United States Since 9/11, ed. K. p. ewing (new york: russell sage Foundation, 2008),
1–11.27. pew research Center, “muslim Americans: middle Class and mostly mainstream”
(report, pew research Center, Washington, DC, 2007).
28. Tom W. smith, “The muslim population of the United states: The methodology
of estimates,” Public Opinion Quarterly 66 (2002): 404–417.
29. ihsan Bagby, paul m. perl, and Bryan T. Froehle, “The mosque in America: A
national portrait” (report, Council on American-islamic relations, Washington, DC,
2001).
30. Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (new york: random House, 2000);
Jane i. smith, Islam in America (new york: Columbia University press, 1999).
31. sharon mcirvin Abu-laban, “Family and religion among muslim immigrants
and Their Descendants,” in Muslim Families in North America, ed. e. H. Waugh, s. m.
Abu-laban, and r. B. Qureshi (edmonton: University of Alberta press, 1991), 6–31.
32. m. Arif Ghayur, “muslims in the United states: settlers and visitors,” Annals of
the American Academy of Political and Social Science 454 (1981): 150–163.
33. Abu-laban, “Family and religion among muslim immigrants and Their
Descendants.”
york: Oxford University press, 2006).
35. Ghayur, “muslims in the United states: settlers and visitors.”
36. The muslim population in the United states has been growing at a rate of 6 per-
cent per year, compared to .9 percent for the U.s. population overall. see louise Cainkar,
“Assessing the need, Addressing the problem: Working with Disadvantaged muslim
immigrant Families and Communities” (report, leadership Center at morehouse
College, Atlanta, GA, 2003).
37. Helen rose ebaugh, “introduction,” in Religion and the New Immigrants:
Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant Congregations, ed. H. r. ebaugh and J.
s. Chafetz (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira press, 2000), 13–28; r. stephen Warner,
“immigration and religious Communities in the United states,” in Gatherings in
Diaspora: Religious Communities and the New Immigration, ed. r. s. Warner and J. G.
Wittner (philadelphia: Temple University press, 1998), 3–34.
38. Diana l. eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become
the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (new york: HarperCollins publishers,
2001); Gordon J. melton, The Encyclopedia of American Religions, 7th ed. (Detroit: Gale
research, 2003).
39. A random sample survey of one thousand American households found that
half of all respondents incorrectly believed that “almost all muslims are Arab.” see
Council on American-islamic relations, “islam and muslims: A poll of American
public Opinion” (report, Council on American-islamic relations research Center,
Washington, DC, 2004).
40. pew Forum on religion and public life, “mapping the Global muslim population:
Notes to Chapter 1 / 185
A report on the size and Distribution of the World’s muslim population” (report, pew
Forum on religion and public life, Washington, DC, 2009).
41. ibid.
42. since 1945, twenty-two nations where the primary language is Arabic have com-
bined to form the league of Arab states. These Arab nations include Algeria, Bahrain,
Comoros, Djibouti, egypt, iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, lebanon, libya, mauritania, morocco,
Oman, palestine, Qatar, saudi Arabia, somalia, sudan, syria, Tunisia, the United Arab
emirates, and yemen.
43. marvin Wingfield, “Arab Americans: into the multicultural mainstream,”
Equity and Excellence in Education 39 (2006): 253–266.
44. Jen’nan Ghazal read, “Discrimination and identity Formation in a post-9/11 era:
A Comparison of muslim and Christian Arab Americans,” in Race and Arab Americans
before and after 9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects, ed. Amaney Jamal and
nadine naber (syracuse, ny: syracuse University press, 2008), 305–317.
45. pew research Center, “muslim Americans: middle Class and mostly main-
stream.”
46. ibid.
47. John r. logan and Glenn Deane, “The muslim World in metropolitan America”
(report, lewis mumford Center for Comparative Urban and regional research,
University of Albany, Albany, ny, 2002).
48. ibid.
49. Abdo, Mecca and Main Street.
50. Gallup poll, “muslim Americans: A national portrait” (report, Gallup, Wash-
ington, DC, 2009).
51. ibid.
52. logan and Deane, “The muslim World in metropolitan America.”
53. Hillel Fradkin, “America in islam,” Public Interest 55 (2004): 37–55.
54. Abdo, Mecca and Main Street.
55. Gallup poll, “muslim Americans: A national portrait.”
56. pew research Center, “muslim Americans: middle Class and mostly main-
stream.”
57. Gallup poll, “muslim Americans: A national portrait.”
58. pew research Center, “muslim Americans: middle Class and mostly main-
stream.”
59. Gallup poll, “muslim Americans: A national portrait.”
60. ibid.
61. Jack G. shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (Brooklyn,
ny: Olive Branch press, 2001).
62. edward W. said, Orientalism (new york: vintage Books, 1978); said, Covering
Islam. 63. David morris, “Unease over islam: poll: Critical views of muslim Faith Growing
among Americans,” ABC News, 2003, available at http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/
World/sept11_islampoll_030911.html (accessed January 22, 2010).
64. Council on American-islamic relations, “islam and muslims: A poll of American
public Opinion.”
65. Council on American-islamic relations, “American public Opinion about islam
186 / Notes to Chapter 1
and muslims” (report, Council on American-islamic relations research Center, Wash-
ington, DC, 2006).
66. Jon Cohen, “poll: Americans skeptical of islam and Arabs: 9/11 Hardened
Americans’ views of muslims,” ABC News, 2006, available at http://abcnews.go.com/Us/
story?id=1700599 (accessed January 22, 2010).
67. lydia saad, “Anti-muslim sentiments Fairly Commonplace: Four in Ten
Americans Admit Feeling prejudice against muslims” (report, Gallup, Washington, DC,
2006).
68. Gallup Center for muslim studies, “in U.s., religious prejudice stronger against
muslims” (report, Gallup, Washington, DC, 2010).
69. ibid.
70. Council on Ameri
can-islamic relations, “American public Opinion about islam
and muslims.”
71. ibid.
72. Cohen, “poll: Americans skeptical of islam and Arabs”; Council on American-
islamic relations, “islam and muslims: A poll of American public Opinion”; Council on
American-islamic relations, “American public Opinion about islam and muslims.”
73. Kathleen moore, “A part of Us or Apart from Us? post-september 11 Attitudes
toward muslims and Civil liberties,” Middle East Report 32, no. 3 (2002): 32–35.
74. Jörg nagler, “internment of German enemy Aliens in the United states during
the First and second World Wars,” in Alien Justice: Wartime Internment in Australia and
North America, ed. Kay saunders and roger Daniels (st. lucia, Queensland: University
of Queensland press, 2000), 66–77.
75. ibid., 68–71.
76. George e. pozzetta, “Alien enemies or loyal Americans? The internment
of italian Americans,” in Alien Justice: Wartime Internment in Australia and North
America, 80–92.
77. roger Daniels, “incarcerating Japanese-Americans: An Atrocity revisited,” in
Alien Justice: Wartime Internment in Australia and North America, 168–184.
78. ibid., 182.
79. yvonne yazback Haddad, Not Quite American? The Shaping of Arab and Muslim
Identity in the United States (Waco, TX: Baylor University press, 2004).
80. Daniels, “incarcerating Japanese-Americans.”
81. Amir marvasti and Karyn mcKinney, Middle Eastern Lives in America (new
york: rowman and littlefield, 2004).
82. lewis seiler and Dan Hamburg, “rule by Fear or rule by law?” San Francisco
Chronicle, February 4, 2008, B-7.
83. Aladdin elaasar, Silent Victims: The Plight of Arab and Muslim Americans in Post
9/11 America (Bloomington, in: AuthorHouse, 2004).
ChapTer 2
1. According to The 9/11 Commission Report, top government officials also initially
believed that an accident had occurred at the World Trade Center. less than 10 minutes
after the first plane struck the north tower, senior Advisor to the president Karl rove
informed president George W. Bush and his staff that a small, twin-engine plane had
Notes to Chapter 2 / 187
crashed into the World Trade Center. The president believed, as indicated in the report,
that the incident “must have been caused by a pilot error.” see national Commission on