80. Cainkar, “The impact of the september 11 Attacks on Arab and muslim
Communities in the United states.”
81. Council on American-islamic relations, “The status of muslim Civil rights in
the United states: Guilt by Association” (report, Council on American-islamic relations
research Center, Washington, DC, 2003).
82. swiney, “racial profiling of Arabs and muslims in the U.s.”
83. ibid.
84. Arab American institute, “Healing the nation: The Arab American experience
after september 11” (report, Arab American institute Foundation, Washington, DC,
2002).
85. nseers requires that all men age sixteen or older who hold temporary visas
from twenty-five select countries report to immigration and naturalization service
offices to be fingerprinted, photographed, and interviewed by federal agents. The special
registration countries include Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, egypt, eritrea,
indonesia, iran, iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, lebanon, libya, morocco, north Korea, Oman,
pakistan, Qatar, saudi Arabia, somalia, sudan, syria, Tunisia, United Arab emirates,
and yemen. All the countries, with the exception of north Korea, have predominantly
muslim and/or Arab populations.
86. Anastasia Hendrix, “protests Today at ins Office: strong Objections to
immigrant registration,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 10, 2003, A-23.
87. For an explanation of the usefulness of qualitative methods in social science
research, see Herbert J. rubin and irene s. rubin, Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of
Hearing Data, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: sage publications, 2005).
ChapTer 3
1. edward W. said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How
We See the Rest of the World, rev. ed. (new york: vintage Books, 1997).
2. John l. esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (new york: Oxford
University press, 1995).
3. yvonne yazbeck Haddad, “The Dynamics of islamic identity in north America,”
in Muslims on the Americanization Path? ed. y. y. Haddad and J. l. esposito (new york:
Oxford University press, 1998), 19–46.
4. Kathleen moore, “The Hijab and religious liberty: Anti-Discrimination law
and muslim Women in the United states,” in Muslims on the Americanization Path?
105–127.
5. runnymede Trust, “islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All” (report, runnymede
Trust, london, 1997).
6. lorraine p. sheridan, “islamophobia pre- and post-september 11, 2001,” Journal
of Interpersonal Violence 21, no. 3 (2006): 317–336.
7. Jane i. smith, Islam in America (new york: Columbia University press, 1999),
176.
Notes to Chapter 3 / 193
8. ihsan Bagby, paul m. perl, and Bryan T. Froehle, “The mosque in America: A
national portrait” (report, Council on American-islamic relations, Washington, DC,
2001).
9. Geneive Abdo, Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11 (new
york: Oxford University press, 2006).
10. lori peek, “Becoming muslim: The Development of a religious identity,”
Sociology of Religion 66, no. 3 (2005): 215–242.
11. spencer e. Cahill, “language practices and self Definition: The Case of Gender
identity Acquisition,” Sociological Quarterly 27, no. 3 (1986): 295–311; Debra van
Ausdale and Joe r. Feagin, The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism (lanham,
mD: rowman and littlefield, 2001).
12. marvin Wingfield, “Arab Americans: into the multicultural mainstream,” Equity
and Excellence in Education 39 (2006): 253–266; Jasmin Zine, “Unveiled sentiments:
Gendered islamophobia and experiences of veiling among muslim Girls in a Canadian
islamic school,” Equity and Excellence in Education 39 (2006): 239–252.
13. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 25th ann. ed. (Cambridge, mA:
perseus Books, 1979).
14. elizabeth Barlow, ed., Evaluation of Secondary-Level Textbooks for Coverage
of the Middle East and North Africa, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: Center for middle eastern
and north African studies, University of michigan, 1994); William J. Griswold, The
Image of the Middle East in Secondary School Textbooks (new york: middle east studies
Association of north America, 1975); Glenn perry, “Treatment of the middle east in
15. Jack G. shaheen, Guilty: Hollywood’s Verdict on Arabs after 9/11 (northampton,
mA: Olive Branch press, 2008).
16. Council on American-islamic relations, “American public Opinion about
islam and muslims” (report, Council on American-islamic relations, Washington, DC,
2006).
17. Khyati y. Joshi, “The racialization of Hinduism, islam, and sikhism in the
United states,” Equity and Excellence in Education 39 (2006): 211–226.
18. For an interesting discussion of “unmeltability” among immigrants, see Joshi,
“The racialization of Hinduism, islam, and sikhism in the United states,” 214.
19. see, for example, Jen’nan Ghazal read, “Challenging myths of muslim Women:
The influence of islam on Arab-American Women’s labor Force Activity,” Muslim
World 96 (2002): 19–38; Jen’nan Ghazal read and John p. Bartkowski, “To veil or not
to veil? A Case study of identity negotiation among muslim Women in Austin, Texas,”
Gender and Society 14 (2000): 395–417.
20. yvonne yazbeck Haddad, Jane i. smith, and Kathleen m. moore, Muslim
Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today (new york: Oxford
University press, 2006).
21. said, Covering Islam.
22. peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, Islamophobia: Making Muslims the
Enemy (lanham, mD: rowman and littlefield, 2008).
23. ibid.
24. Jack G. shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (Brooklyn,
ny: Olive Branch press, 2001).
194 / Notes to Chapter 3
25. said, Covering Islam.
26. Jeffrey m. Jones, “Americans Felt Uneasy toward Arabs even before september
11,” Gallup, 2001, available at www.gallup.com/poll/4939/Americans-Felt-Uneasy-
Toward-Arabs-even-Before-september.aspx (accessed January 24, 2010).
ChapTer 4
1. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 25th ann. ed. (Cambridge, mA:
perseus Books, 1979).
2. Adalberto Aguirre, Jr., and Jonathan H. Turner, American Ethnicity: The
Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination, 6th ed. (Boston: mcGraw Hill Higher
education, 2009).
3. Khyati y. Joshi, “The racialization of Hinduism, islam, and sikhism in the United
states,” Equity and Excellence in Education 39 (2006): 211–226.
4. such derogatory names have made their way into popular culture, as evidenced by
the 2006 Academy Award–winning film Crash. in one of the movie’s opening scenes, a
persian man and his daughter attempt to purchase a gun. The gun store owner, a white,
middle-aged man, incorrectly assumes that the father and daughter are Arab after they
speak to one another in Farsi. He proceeds to yell at the man, “yo, Osama! plan the jihad
on your own time. What do you want?”
5. Joe r. Feagin and melvin p. sikes, Living with Racism: The Black Middle-Class
&n
bsp; Experience (Boston: Beacon press, 1994).
6. Council on American-islamic relations, “American muslims: One year after
9/11” (report, Council on American-islamic relations research Center, Washington,
DC, 2002), 25.
7. stanley Crouch, “Drawing the line on racial profiling,” Daily News, October 4,
2001, 41.
8. Council on American-islamic relations, “The status of muslim Civil rights in
the United states: stereotypes and Civil liberties” (report, Council on American-islamic
relations research Center, Washington, DC, 2002), 22.
9. Hussein ibish, ed., “report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination against
Arab Americans: The post-september 11 Backlash” (report, American-Arab Anti-
Discrimination Committee, Washington, DC, 2003), 130.
10. louise Cainkar, “no longer invisible: Arab and muslim exclusion after
september 11,” Middle East Report 32, no. 3 (2002): 22–29.
11. ibid., 23.
12. Jeffrey m. Jones, “The impact of the Attacks on America,” Gallup, 2001, available at
www.gallup.com/poll/4894/impact-Attacks-America.aspx (accessed January 25, 2010).
13. survey research conducted after 9/11 confirmed that high levels of patriotism
were associated with negative evaluations of muslims and Arabs. see Darren W. Davis,
Negative Liberty: Public Opinion and the Terrorist Attacks on America (new york:
russell sage Foundation, 2007), 210.
14. Feagin and sikes, Living with Racism.
15. John Howard Griffin, Black Like Me (new york: signet, 1961).
16. elaine s. povich, “King’s remarks Outrage muslims,” Newsday, February 12,
2004, A-18.
Notes to Chapter 4 / 195
17. noah shachtman, “Bush’s year of U.s. surveillance,” Wired, January 2, 2003,
available at www.wired.com/politics/security/news/2003/01/57005 (accessed may 6,
2010).
18. Jason leopold, “Did Bush Continue to secretly Operate Total information
Awareness?” Truthout, september 18, 2009, available at www.truthout.org/091909A
(accessed may 6, 2010).
19. shachtman, “Bush’s year of U.s. surveillance.”
20. leopold, “Did Bush Continue to secretly Operate Total information Aware-
ness?”
21. For a classic statement on the gap between the American ideal of equality for all
persons and actual conduct, see robert K. merton, “Discrimination and the American
Creed,” in Discrimination and National Welfare: A Series of Addresses and Discussions,
ed. r. m. maciver (port Washington, ny: Kennikat press, 1949), 99–126.
22. Alana semuels, “Workplace Bias against muslims, Arabs on the rise, Advocates
say,” Los Angeles Times, October 3, 2006, C-1.
23. european monitoring Centre on racism and Xenophobia, “muslims in the
european Union: Discrimination and islamophobia” (report, european monitoring
Centre on racism and Xenophobia, vienna, Austria, 2006); Judy vashti persad and
salome lukas, “‘no Hijab is permitted Here’: A study on the experiences of muslim
Women Wearing Hijab Applying for Work in the manufacturing, sales, and service
sectors” (report, Women Working with immigrant Women, Toronto, Canada, 2002).
24. Amardeep singh, “‘We Are not the enemy’: Hate Crimes against Arabs,
muslims, and Those perceived to Be Arab or muslim after september 11,” Human Rights
Watch Report 14, no. 6 (2002): 1–42.
25. monisha Das Gupta, “On Hardship and Hostility: The impact of 9/11 on new
york City Taxi Drivers,” in Wounded City: The Social Impact of 9/11, ed. nancy Foner
(new york: russell sage Foundation, 2005), 208–241.
26. Arab American institute, “Healing the nation: the Arab American experience
after september 11” (report, Arab American institute Foundation, Washington, DC,
2002).
27. ruth sidell, Battling Bias: The Struggle for Identity and Community on College
Campuses (new york: penguin, 1995).
28. Jack levin and Jack mcDevitt, Hate Crimes Revisited: America’s War on Those
Who Are Different (Boulder, CO: Westview press, 2002).
29. ibish, “report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination against Arab Americans.”
30. Frederick mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 2nd ed. (new york:
macmillan, 1994).
31. Diana Jean schemo, “electronic Tracking system monitors Foreign students,”
New York Times, February 17, 2003, A-11.
32. Dan eggen, “FBi Taps Campus police in Anti-Terror Operations,” Washington
Post, January 25, 2003, A-1.
33. ibid.
34. Diane Carroll, “U.s. Colleges see Fewer students from islamic Countries,”
Kansas City Star, november 3, 2003, A-2.
35. ellen sorokin, “Drop in middle easterners at U.s. schools Tied to visas,”
Washington Times, november 29, 2002, A-4.
196 / Notes to Chapter 4
36. louise Cainkar, “The impact of the september 11 Attacks on Arab and muslim
Communities in the United states,” in The Maze of Fear: Security and Migration after
9/11, ed. John Tirman (new york: new press, 2004), 215–239.
37. Chrystie Flournoy swiney, “racial profiling of Arabs and muslims in the U.s.:
Historical, empirical, and legal Analysis Applied to the War on Terrorism,” Muslim
World Journal of Human Rights 3, no. 1 (2006): 1–36.
38. U.s. Department of Justice, Civil rights Division, “Guidance regarding the Use
of race by Federal law enforcement Agencies,” 2003, available at www.usdoj.gov/crt/
split/documents/guidance_on_race.php (accessed January 25, 2010).
39. swiney, “racial profiling of Arabs and muslims in the U.s.”
40. sam Howe verhovek, “Civil liberties: Americans Give in to race profiling,” New
York Times, september 23, 2001, A-1.
41. erik C. nisbet and James shanahan, “The media and society research Group
special report: restrictions on Civil liberties, views of islam, and muslim Americans”
(report, Cornell University, ithaca, ny, 2004).
42. lynette Clemetson, “Traces of Terror: Arab Americans; Civil rights Commissioner
under Fire for Comments on Arabs,” New York Times, July 22, 2002, A-14.
43. swiney, “racial profiling of Arabs and muslims in the U.s.”
44. michael Welch, Scapegoats of September 11th: Hate Crimes and State Crimes in
the War on Terror (new Brunswick, nJ: rutgers University press, 2006).
45. ibish, “report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination against Arab Americans.”
46. ibid.
47. For an account of hate crimes against sikhs, Hindus, Hispanics, and others who
were wrongly perceived to be Arab or muslim and were subsequently targeted after 9/11,
see ibish, “report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination against Arab Americans”; singh,
“‘We Are not the enemy.’”
ChapTer 5
1. serge schmemann, “Hijacked Jets Destroy Twin Towers and Hit pentagon,” New
York Times, september 12, 2001, A-1.
2. Allen H. Barton, Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Collective
Stress Situations (Garden City, ny: Doubleday, 1969); Charles e. Fritz, “Disaster,” in
Contemporary Social Problems, ed. r. K. merton and r. A. nisbet (new york: Harcourt,
Brace, and World, 1961), 651–694.
3. Charles e. Fritz, “Disasters and mental Health: Therapeutic principles Drawn
from Dis
aster studies” (Disaster research Center Historical and Comparative series,
#10, Disaster research Center, University of Delaware, newark, 1996).
4. Barton, Communities in Disaster, 207.
5. Fritz argues that the persistence of the therapeutic community in time and its total
effect in changing the pre-existing social system are variables determined in large part by
(1) the scope and destructive power of the disaster, (2) the possibility of continuing or
recurrent danger, and (3) the power of the remaining societal components to superim-
pose either the preexisting system or a variant system on the emergent community. Fritz,
“Disasters and mental Health,” 30.
6. ibid., 63.
Notes to Chapter 5 / 197
7. Kathleen J. Tierney, “From the margins to the mainstream? Disaster research at
the Crossroads,” Annual Review of Sociology 33 (2007): 503–525.
8. samuel Henry prince, Catastrophe and Social Change (new york: Columbia
University press, 1920).
9. edward W. said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How
We See the Rest of the World, rev. ed. (new york: vintage Books, 1997).
10. susan B. Glasser, “U.s. Figures show sharp Global rise in Terrorism,”
Washington Post, April 27, 2005, A-1.
11. Dexter ingram, “Facts and Figures about Terrorism” (report, Heritage
Foundation, Washington, DC, 2001).
12. ibid.
13. Jean Baudrillard describes the terrorism of the late twentieth century as a
“peculiarly modern form” because of the impact that it has had on public conscious-
ness through electronic media. see Jean Baudrillard, The Transparency of Evil: Essays on
Extreme Phenomena (new york: verso, 1993), 76.
14. Tracy Wilkinson, “Anti-U.s. Displays Worry palestinians,” Los Angeles Times,
september 16, 2001, A-1.
15. nicola Webber, “extremists Deny role in Carnage,” Herald Sun, september 12,
2001, 8.
16. John F. Burns, “A Day of Terror: The militant; America the vulnerable meets a
ruthless enemy,” New York Times, september 12, 2001, A-1.
17. it was not until October 2004 that Osama bin laden admitted that he ordered
the airline hijackings that hit the World Trade Center and the pentagon. in claiming
responsibility for the attacks, the al Qaeda leader said he did so because of injustices
against lebanese and palestinian people by israel and the United states.