Catherine the Great, 106
Cavendish, Henry (1731-1810), 8 , 11 - 12 , 16 , 54 n, 162 n advocacy of steam point, 24 - 27
on boiling, 24 - 27 , 32 , 35 - 36 , 51
on freezing of mercury, 110 - 115 , 154 ,
Cavendish, Lord Charles (1704-1783), 29
Cellars. See deep places, temperatures of
Celsius, Anders (1701-1744), 10t , 11 , 60 , 160
Centigrade scale, 59 , 60 , 160
Chaldecott, John, 120 n, 140 n
Changes of state, 29 n, 72 , 137 , 242 Aitken's view on, 37 - 38
in chemical caloric theory, 65
Irvinist explanation of, 168 - 170
Charles's law. See Gay-Lussac's law
Charlotte, Queen, 14 , 119
Chatelier. See Le Chatelier, Henri-Louis
Chemical caloric theory, 65 - 67 , 170 - 171 , 202
Chirikov, Captain Alexei, 104
Circularity, 62 n, 95 , 146 , 156 , 229 inherent in empiricist justification, 99 , 220 - 221
in operationalization, 192 , 201 , 203 , 205 , 208
in problem of nomic measurement, 59 - 60 , 71 n, 80 , 83 , 89 - 90 , 136
Clapeyron, Benoit-Pierre-Émile (1799-1864), 97 , 98 , 180 - 181
Clausius, Rudolf (1822-1888), 173 , 194
Clay pyrometer. See under Wedgwood, Josiah
Cleghorn, William, 106
Clément, Nicolas (1778/9-1841), 135 - 137 , 140 , 157
Cloud chamber, 35 - 36
Cogency (of abstract ideas), 234
Cohen, Leonard, 39
Coherence, 47 , 157 - 158 , 221
Coherentism, 6 , 156 , 220 - 221 , 231 , 233 round-earth, 223 - 224
Cohesion, 30 - 31 , 194
Cold artificial, 105 , 116 (see also freezing mixtures)
positive reality of, 160 - 168 , 242 , 246
radiation of, 166 - 167 , 242 - 243 , 246
Rumford on, 167 , 172
in Siberia, 104
see also low temperatures, production and measurement of
Collège de France, 75 , 76
Combined caloric, 66 - 67 , 71 - 72 , 170 - 171 . See also latent heat
Comparability, 77 - 83 , 89 - 92 , 139 - 140 , 152 , 193 , 221 , 223 , 230 , 245 of air thermometer, 80 - 83 , 96 , 137
De Luc's use of, 78
of generalized gas thermometer, 81 - 82
of mercury thermometer, 79 - 80
Regnault's use of, 77 , 79 - 83 , 175
of spirit thermometer, 78 - 79
of Wedgwood's clay pyrometer, 120 - 121 , 125 - 126 , 139 - 140 , 155 - 156
see also single value, principle of
Complementary science, 3 , 5 - 6 , 235 - 250 character of knowledge generated by, 240 - 247
new knowledge generated by, 245 - 247
relation to other modes of science studies, 247 - 249
relation to specialist science, 247 , 249 - 250
Comte, Auguste (1798-1851), 74 , 97 - 98
Conant, James Bryant, 250 n
Concepts. See entries for abstraction; extension; meaning; operationalism; theoretical concepts
Conceptual extension. See extension
Concrete image (of an abstract system). See imaging
Concretization. See imaging
Condensation. See under steam
Condenser, separate. See under Watt, James
Confirmation, criteria of, 227 . See also epistemic virtures; justification; testing
Committee of Public Safety, 129
Conformity condition, 152 - 155
Conservation of energy. See under energy
Conservation of heat. See under heat
Conservatism, 224 - 225 , 231
Consistency, logical, 44 , 227 , 231 , 233
Consistency, physical, 90 , 92 - 93 , 118 , 155 . See also single value, principle of
Constructs, mental, 151
Contraction of clay by heat. See under linearity; Wedgwood
Contraction of fluids by cold. See expansion
Convention, 147 , 152
Conventionalism, 58 - 59 , 211 , 222
Convergence, 145 , 148 , 156 , 157 , 212 , 215 , 217 , 221 . See also overlap condition
Cooling, Newton's law of, 120 , 137
Cooling by expansion. See adiabatic phenomena; Joule-Thomson experiment
Copernicanism, 244
Copper, 126t , 131t , 136 , 138 n
Correction, 16 , 43 , 204 , 212 - 213 , 215 - 216 , 221 , 230 . See also self-correction
Correctness, 6 , 204 , 206 , 207 , 211 , 216 , 232 , of measurement methods, 221 , 222 , 224 n
of operationalization, 208 , 212 - 213 , 245
Correspondence, 208 , 216
Coulomb, [Charles de], 242 n
Crawford, Adair (1748-1795), 66 , 68 , 169
end p.277
Crell, Lorenz, 123
Critical awareness, 243 - 245
Critical point, 22
Criticism, 235 , 237 , 240 , 249 - 250 . See also critical awareness
Cushing, James T., 245
Dalencé, Joachim (1640-1707?), 10
Dalton, John (1766-1844) on atoms, 71 n
criticised by Dulong and Petit, 101
on expansion of gases, 69 , 70 n, 99
on freezing point of mercury, 116
and Irvinist caloric theory, 169 - 170 , 180 n
on method of mixtures, 66 , 69 , 94
temperature scale, 66 , 116
on vapor pressure, 29 , 30t
Daniell, John Frederic (1790-1845) platinum pyrometry, 129 - 134 , 136 , 138 , 139 , 156
temperature scale, 133
on Wedgwood pyrometer, 122 , 140 n, 149 , 153
Davy, Humphry (1778-1829), 164 n, 172
Day, A. L., 214 , 215
Deep places, temperatures of, 9 , 61 n
Definition. See meaning; operationalism
Degree of boiling. See under boiling
Delahire. See La Hire, Phillipe de
Delisle (De l'Isle), Joseph-Nicolas (1688-1768), 10t , 13f , 105 , 160 - 162
De l'Isle de la Croyere, Louis, 105 n
De Luc, François, 14
De Luc, Guillaume-Antoine, 14
De Luc (Deluc), Jean-André (1727-1817), 11 , 14 - 16 , 72 n, 99 , 176 on boiling, 16 - 27 , 32 - 35 , 38 , 50 , 51 , 241
on comparability, 78 - 79
on freezing and supercooling, 53 - 56
on freezing of mercury, 107 - 109
on mercury thermometer, 62 - 64 , 114 - 115
method of mixtures, 62 - 64 , 93 - 94 : critics of, 67 - 69 , 96 , 101 , 136 , 171
on spirit thermometer, 64t , 78
De Mairan, Jean-Jacques d'Ortous (1678-1771), 164
De Morveau. See Guyton de Morveau, Louis-Bernard
Desormes, Charles-Bernard (1777-1862), 135 - 137 , 140 , 157
Diamond, 129
Dingle, Herbert, 244
Dishwasing, as metaphor for iterative progress, 220
Distance. See length, Bridgman's discussion of
Dogmatism, 237 , 248
Donny, François Marie Louis (1822-?), 22 , 33
Dörries, Matthias, 75 , 100
Draper, John William, 244
Drebbel, Cornelius, 105 n
Dry ice, 116
Du Crest (Ducrest), Jacques Barthélemi Micheli (1690-1766), 10t , 61
Dufour, Louis (1832-1892), 22 , 31 , 32 - 35 , 37 n, 38 , 54
Duhem, Pierre, 92 , 95 , 98 , 100 , 221 , 224 n, 232
Duhem-Quine thesis. See holism.
Dulong, Pierre (1785-1838), 74 , 116 , 134 in post-Laplacian empiricism, 96 - 98 , 232
on thermometry, 79 , 100 - 102 , 136 , 137
Dulong and Petit's law, 97 , 98
Dumas, Jean-Baptiste, 75 , 76 , 99
Dust, 34 , 36 - 38 , 50 - 51
Dynamic theory of heat, 84 , 162 , 167 , 171 - 173 , 183
Earth. See round-earth coherentism
Ebullition normal (Gern
ez), 33 - 34
true (De Luc), 17 - 21 , 25
see also boiling
École Polytechnique, 74 , 75 , 129 , 135 , 180
Efficiency (of engines), 178 , 180 , 183 - 184 , 187 , 191 , 201 , 203 n
Einstein, Albert, 144 , 147
Electric-resistance thermometry, 213
Ellis, Brian, 41 n, 90 n
Empirical adequacy, 228
Empirical laws, 49 , 52 , 59 , 66 n, 74 - 75 , 98 - 99 , 190 , 221 . See also middle-level regularities; phenomenological laws
Empiricism, 84 - 85 , 92 , 97 - 98 , 221 . See also Bridgman, Percy Williams; phenomenalism; positivism; post-Laplacian empiricism; Regnault, Henri Victor
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10t , 11 , 23 , 40 , 60 , 115 , 118 , 164 , 204 , 210
Energy, 84 , 172 - 173 , 242 conservation of, 149 , 182 , 183 , 186 , 209
internal, 194 , 210 , 211
in quantum mechanics, 52 n, 157 n
Enrichment (by iteration), 228 - 230
Epistemic iteration, 6 , 44 - 48 , 158 , 212 - 217 , 220 - 221 , 226 - 231 , 233 , 234 , 245
Epistemic values, 46 , 227 - 228 , 233 - 234 . See also epistemic virtues
Epistemic virtues, 90 , 156 , 158 , 227 - 230 , 232 - 233 . See also epistemic values
Equilibrium in changes of state, 32 , 54 - 56
in mixtures, 67 n, 134
of radian heat, 71
thermodynamic, 178 , 185 n
Eschinardi, Francesco, 10t , 47t
Ether, 172 , 173
Evans, James, 167 n, 172 n, 242
Evaporation, 18 , 20 - 21 , 26 n, 27 - 28 , 32 - 33 , 38
Expansion (thermal) Dalton on, 116
Dulong and Petit on, 101 - 102
Fourier unconcerned about, 98
Haüy's theory of, 67 - 68
of reservoirs of thermometers, 79 - 80 , 137 n, 138
end p.278
of various substances: air, 74 - 75 , 83 , 137 , 190 ; gases (in general), 69 - 75 , 83 , 98 - 99 , 101 - 102 , 138 , 192 , 211 - 212 , 216 , 218 ; glass, 58 , 79 - 80 , 83 , 101 n; gold, 138 ; iron, 130t , 134 ; mercury, 59 , 62 - 64 , 67 - 68 , 114 , 133 , 153 ; metals (in general), 101 , 120 , 154 ; platinum, 128 - 129 , 133 - 134 ; silver, 123 - 125 , 127 , 153 ; solids (in general), 61 , 134 ; spirit, 61 , 64t , 78 - 79 , 108 - 109 , 114 - 115 , 117 , 227
Expansive principle. See under Watt, James
Explanatory power, 227
Explosion, 20
Extension (of concepts), 141 - 142 , 146 - 147 , 148 - 155 metrological, 150 , 152 , 157 , 229 - 230 , 245 : of temperature, 117 , 152 - 155 , 221 , 223
operational, 150
semantic, 149 - 151
Extrapolation, 108 - 109 , 114 - 115 , 134
Fabri, Honoré, 10t
Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel (1686-1736), 12 n, 58 , 60 , 77 , 79 , 105 n on mixing experiments, 225
on supercooling, 53 - 55
temperature scale, 10t , 13f , 40 - 41
Fairbank, William M. Jr., 244
Falsification, 94 , 227 , 230
Feigl, Herbert, 52 , 198
Ferdinand, Grand Duke (Medici), 10t
Feyerabend, Paul, 52 , 233
Fitzgerald, Keane, 120 n
Fixed points for pyrometry, 126 , 129 , 133
various, 8 - 11 , 10t
see also boiling point of water; fixity; freezing point
Fixity, 9 , 23 , 39 - 40 , 52 , 55 , 221 defence of, 48 - 52
Fog, 36
Foley, Richard, 221 , 223
Forbes, James David, 76
Fordyce, George (1736-1802), 119 - 120
Foundationalism, 6 , 42 , 156 , 220 - 224 , 227
Fourier, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph (1768-1830), 74 , 96 - 97 , 98 , 174 , 232
Fourmi, 140
Fowler, John, 10t
Fox, Robert, 65 , 70 , 73 n, 96 - 98 , 100
Franklin, Allan, 95 , 244
Free caloric, 66 - 67 , 71 - 73 , 170 - 171
Free caloric of space, 72
Free surface, 19 n, 37 - 38 , 55 . See also Aitken, John; changes of state
Freezing mixtures, 105 - 106 , 109 , 113 , 115 , 166
Freezing of mercury. See under mercury
Freezing point of aniseed oil, 9
considered indefinite, 9 , 106
of mercury, 107 - 118
of water, 9 , 11 , 53 - 56 , 135 , 162 n
French Revolution, 75 , 128 - 129
Fresnel, Augustin (1788-1827), 96
Frigorific particles, 162 - 163
Frigorific radiation, 167 - 168 , 246
Fruitfulness, 227
Galileo, 8 , 47t , 226
Galison, Peter, 36 n, 52
Gases expansion of, 69 - 75 , 83 , 98 - 99 , 101 - 102 , 138 , 192 , 211 - 212 , 216 , 218 ; Dalton and Gay-Lussac on, 69 ; Regnault on, 98 - 99
Regnault's technique for weighing, 76 n
special status of (in caloric theory), 69 - 70 , 101
specific heat of, 181 , 204 , 205 , 210
see also gas thermometer; ideal gas; kinetic theory of gases; Laplace, Pierre-Simon
Gassendi, Pierre (1592-1655), 162
Gas thermometer (generalized), 81 - 82 , 116 , 171 , 217 - 218 as approximate indicator of absolute temperature, 192 - 197 , 210 - 216
see also Joule-Thomson experiment
Gay-Lussac, Joseph-Louis (1778-1850) on boiling, 21 , 23 , 30 - 31
on expansion of gases, 69 , 99 , 101 n
on thermometry, 57 , 70 n, 71 , 100
Gay-Lussac's law, 190
George III, 12 , 14 , 122f , 123
Gernez, Désiré-Jean-Baptiste (1834-1910), 32 - 35 , 54 - 55 ,
Glass, 58 , 113 expansion of, 58 , 79 - 80 , 83 , 101 n
vessels for boiling water, 18 , 21 - 23 , 31 , 49
Glasses, as an illustration of self-correction, 230
Gmelin, Johann Georg (1709-1755), 104 - 106
Gold, 126t , 129 , 131t , 138 , 141 n
Graham, Andrew, 110
Gray, Andrew, 193 n
Greenwich. See National Maritime Museum
Grünbaum, Adolf, 95
Guericke, Otto von, 10t
Guthrie, Matthew (1732-1807), 107 , 114 , 115 n
Guyton de Morveau, Louis-Bernard (1737-1816), 128 - 129 on calorimetric pyrometry, 135
platinum pyrometry, 128 - 129 , 133 , 156 - 157
and Wedgwood's clay pyrometer, 120 n, 123 , 140
Hacking, Ian, 52 , 85 - 86 , 166
Halley, Edmond (1656-1742), 8 - 9 , 10t , 41
Hanson, Norwood Russell, 52
Haüy, René-Just (1743-1794), 67 - 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 n, 78 , 171
Heat in chemical reactions, 168
conservation of, 94 , 134 , 183 , 184 , 187
mechanical equivalent of, 185 , 204
operationalization of, 201 - 202
end p.279
relation with work, 175 , 180 , 183 , 186 , 194 , 209 (see also efficiency)
see also caloric theory; dynamic theory of heat
Heat capacity, 41 , 65 , 66 , 68 , 98 , 168 - 170 , 198 , 227 and specific heat, 170 , 171 , 202
Heat engine. See Carnot engine; steam engine
Heberden, William, 11 n
Heering, Peter, 242 n
Heights, measurement by pressure, 14
Heilbron, John L., 73 n
Heisenberg, Werner, 147 n, 220
Hempel, Carl G., 114 , 224 n, 227
Henry, William (1774-1836), 171 n
Hentschel, Klaus, 244
Herapath, John (1790-1868), 172 - 173
Herschel, William (1738-1822), 166
Hertz, Heinrich, 231
Hesse, Mary, 52
Hierarchy. See under justification
High-level theories, 51 - 52
High temperatures, measurement of. See pyrometry
Hissing (sifflement), 16 , 20
History and philosophy of science, 5 - 7 complementary function of, 236 - 238 , 248 , 249
descriptive mode of, 249
as an int
egrated discipline, 239 , 249
prescriptive mode of, 249 - 250
History of science internal, 248
relation to philosophy, 233 - 234 , 236 , 239 - 240
relation to science, 239
social, 247 - 248
Hobbes, Thomas, 246
Holism (in theory testing), 92 - 94 . See also auxiliary hypotheses; Duhem, Pierre; Quine, Willard van Orman
Holton, Gerald, 142 , 244 , 250 n
Hooke, Robert (1635-1703), 9 , 10t , 162 n
Hope, Thomas, 123
Horsley, Samuel, 11 n
Hudson's Bay, 110 - 111 , 115
Human body temperature. See blood heat
Humphreys, Paul, 217 n
Huntoon, R. D., 186
Husserl, Edmund, 47 , 224
Hutchins, Thomas (?-1790), 110 - 115
Hutchison, Keith, 194 n, 195 n
Huygens, Christiaan, 10t , 226
Hydrogen, 81 , 205
Hypothetico-deductive (H-D) model of theory testing, 93 , 227
Ice calorimeter, 134 - 136 , 154 , 156 , 192
latent heat in melting of, 54 : Irvinist account of, 65 , 168 - 170
melting point of, 53 , 55 , 135 (see also freezing point of water)
superheating of, 37 , 55
see also supercooling
Ideal gas, 211 - 218 as an abstraction, 203 - 204
as indicator of absolute temperature, 192 - 195
Ideal gas law, 193 , 203 - 204 , 231
Ideal-gas temperature, 218
Idealization, 202 - 204 , 206 Carnot engine as an, 188 , 191 , 208 - 210
Imaging, 206 , 208 - 210 , 216 . See also operationalization
Independence, 95
Indicator diagram. See under Watt, James
Industrial Revolution, 176
Infinite regress, 40 , 43 , 224
Infrared radiation, 166
Institut de France, 129
Intelligibility, 91 - 92
Internal history of science, 248
International Practical Scale of Temperature, 154 , 187
Inverted temperature scales, 105 , 160 - 161
Iron for air thermometers, 138
cast, 119 , 126t , 129 , 141 n, 149
expansion of, 130t , 134
melting point(s) of, 119 , 126t , 129 , 131t - 132t , 136 , 139 , 141 n, 149