Salvétat, Alphonse. 1857. Leçons de céramique profesées à l'École centrale des arts et manufactures, ou technologie céramique … Paris: Mallet-Bachelier.
Sandfort, John F. 1964. Heat Engines: Thermodynamics in Theory and Practice. London: Heinemann.
Sargent, Rose-Mary. 1995. The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Saunders, Simon. 1998. "Hertz's Principles." In Davis Baird, R. I. G. Hughes, and Alfred Nordmann, eds., Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher, 123-154. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Schaffer, Simon: see Shapin and Schaffer.
Scherer, A. N. 1799. "Sur le pyromètre de Wedgwood et de nouveaux appareils d'expériences." Annales de chimie 31:171-172.
end p.271
Schlick, Moritz. [1930] 1979. "On the Foundations of Knowledge." In Philosophical Papers, vol. 2 (1925-1936), edited by H. L. Mulder and B. F. B. van de Velde-Schlick, 370-387. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Schmidt, J. G. 1805. "Account of a New Pyrometer, which is Capable of Indicating Degrees of Heat of a Furnace." [Nicholson's] Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts 11:141-142.
Schofield, Robert E. 1963. The Lunar Society of Birmingham. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Shapere, Dudley. 1982. "The Concept of Observation in Science and Philosophy." Philosophy of Science 49:485-525.
Shapin, Steven, and Simon Schaffer. 1985. Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Sharlin, Harold I. 1979. Lord Kelvin: The Dynamic Victorian. In collaboration with Tiby Sharlin. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Sibum, Heinz Otto. 1995. "Reworking the Mechanical Value of Heat: Instruments of Precision and Gestures of Accuracy in Early Victorian England." Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 26:73-106.
Silbey, Robert J., and Robert A. Alberty. 2001. Physical Chemistry. 3d ed. New York: Wiley.
Sklar, Lawrence. 1975. "Methodological Conservatism." Philosophical Review 84:374-400.
Smeaton, W. A.: see Lodwig and Smeaton.
Smith, Crosbie. 1998. The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain. London: Athlone Press and the University of Chicago Press.
Smith, Crosbie, and M. Norton Wise. 1989. Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, George E. 2002. "From the Phenomenon of the Ellipse to an Inverse-Square Force: Why Not?" In David B. Malament, ed., Reading Natural Philosophy: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science and Mathematics, 31-70. Chicago: Open Court.
Sosman, R. B.: see Day and Sosman.
Taylor, Brook. 1723. "An Account of an Experiment, Made to Ascertain the Proportion of the Expansion of the Liquor in the Thermometer, with Regard to the Degrees of Heat." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 32:291.
Thenard, Louis-Jacques. 1813. Traité de chimie élémentaire, théoretique et pratique. 4 vols. Paris: Crochard.
Thompson, Silvanus P. 1910. The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs. 2 vols. London: Macmillan.
Thomson, Thomas. 1802. A System of Chemistry. 4 vols. Edinburgh: Bell & Bradfute, and E. Balfour.
———. 1830. An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity. London: Baldwin & Cradock; Edinburgh: William Blackwood.
Thomson, William: see also Joule and Thomson.
Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin). [1848] 1882. "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale Founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and Calculated from Regnault's Observations." In Thomson 1882, 100-106. Originally published in the Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 1:66-71; also in the Philosophical Magazine, 3d ser., 33:313-317.
———. [1849] 1882. "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat; with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." In Thomson 1882, 113-155. Originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 16:541-574.
———. [1851a] 1882. "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with Numerical Results Deduced from Mr Joule's Equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on
end p.272
Steam." In Thomson 1882, 174-210 (presented as Parts 1-3 of a composite paper, Art. 48 under this title). Originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1851; also in the Philosophical Magazine, 4th ser., 4 (1852).
———. [1851b] 1882. "On a Method of Discovering Experimentally the Relation between the Mechanical Work Spent, and the Heat Produced by the Compression of a Gaseous Fluid." In Thomson 1882, 210-222 (presented as Part 4 of Art. 48). Originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 20 (1851).
———. [1851c] 1882. "On the Quantities of Mechanical Energy Contained in a Fluid in Different States, as to Temperature and Density." In Thomson 1882, 222-232 (presented as Part 5 of Art. 48). Originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 20 (1851).
———. [1854] 1882. "Thermo-Electric Currents." In Thomson 1882, 232-291 (presented as Part 6 of Art. 48). Originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 21 (1854).
———. [1879-80a] 1911. "On Steam-Pressure Thermometers of Sulphurous Acid, Water, and Mercury." In Thomson 1911, 77-87. Originally published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 10:432-441.
———. [1879-80b] 1911. "On a Realised Sulphurous Acid Steam-Pressure Differential Thermometer; Also a Note on Steam-Pressure Thermometers." In Thomson 1911, 90-95. Originally published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 10:523-536.
———. 1880. Elasticity and Heat (Being articles contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica). Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black.
———. 1882. Mathematical and Physical Papers. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 1911. Mathematical and Physical Papers. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomlinson, Charles. 1868-69. "On the Action of Solid Nuclei in Liberating Vapour from Boiling Liquids." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 17:240-252.
Truesdell, Clifford. 1979. The Tragicomical History of Thermodynamics, 1822-1854. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Tunbridge, Paul A. 1971. "Jean André De Luc, F.R.S." Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 26:15-33.
Tyndall, John. 1880. Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion. 6th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Company.
Uebel, Thomas: see Cartwright et al.
Urness, Carol, ed. 1967. A Naturalist in Russia: Letters from Peter Simon Pallas to Thomas Pennant. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Van der Star, Pieter, ed. 1983. Fahrenheit's Letters to Leibniz and Boerhaave. Leiden: Museum Boerhaave; Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Van Fraassen, Bas C. 1980. The Scientific Image. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Van Swinden, J. H. 1788. Dissertations sur la comparaison des thermomètres. Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey.
Voyages en Sibérie, extraits des journaux de divers savans voyageurs. 1791. Berne: La Société Typographique.
Walter, Maila L. 1990. Science and Cultural Crisis: An Intellectual Biography of Percy Williams Bridgman (1882-1961). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
Watson, William. 1753. "A Comparison of Different Thermometrical Observations in Sibiria [sic]." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 48:108-109.
———. 1761. "An Account of a Treatise in Latin, Presented to the Royal Society, intituled, De admirando frigore artificiali, quo mercurius est congelatus, dissertatio,
end p.273
&c. a J. A. Braunio, Academiae Scientiarum Membro, &c." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 52:156-172.
Wedgwood, Josiah. 1782. "An Attempt to Make a Thermometer for Measuring the Higher Degrees of Heat, from a Red Heat up to the Strongest that Vessels Made of Clay can Support." Philosoph
ical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 72:305-326.
———. 1786. "Additional Observations on Making a Thermometer for Measuring the Higher Degrees of Heat." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 76:390-408.
Wess, Jane A.: see Morton and Wess.
Wise, M. Norton: see also Smith and Wise.
Wise, M. Norton, ed. 1995. The Values of Precision. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1969. On Certainty (Über Gewissheit). Edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright. Dual language edition with English translation by Denis Paul and G. E. M. Anscombe. New York: Harper.
Woodward, James: see also Bogen and Woodward.
Woodward, James. 1989. "Data and Phenomena." Synthese 79:393-472.
Young, Thomas. 1807. Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts. 2 vols. London: Joseph Johnson. The first volume contains the main text, and the second volume contains a very extensive bibliography.
Zemansky, Mark W., and Richard H. Dittman. 1981. Heat and Thermodynamics. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
end p.274
Index
The letter "n" after a page number indicates reference to a footnote on that page; "f" indicates a reference to a figure; "t" indicates a reference to a table.
Absolute temperature Amontons's conception of, 182
Callendar and Le Chatelier on, 213 - 215
Irvinist conception of, 65 , 168 - 170 , 198
Thomson's conception of, 174 - 175 , 181 - 186 , 215
Thomson's first definition of, 182 : operationalization of, 187 - 192 , 208
Thomson's second definition of, 185 - 186 , 185 n: operationalization of, 192 - 197 , 201 , 208 - 215 ; relation with the first definition, 183 n
Thomson's work of 1880 on, 204 - 205 , 209 - 210
Absolute zero, 182 Amontons's conception of, 108 - 109
considered meaningless by Rumford and Davy, 172
Irvinist conception of, 168 , 198
Irvinist estimates of, 170
non-existent in Thomson's first absolute temperature, 190 , 191t
see also absolute temperature
Abstraction, in philosophical ideas, 6 - 7 , 233 - 234 , 245
Abstraction, in scientific theories, 202 , 217 in Carnot's theory, 178 , 187 , 203
operationalization of, 207 - 208 , 213 , 216
Thomson's preference for, 174 , 186 , 202 - 203
Académie des Sciences, 58 , 71 n, 75 , 76 , 98 n
Accademia del Cimento, 10
Accuracy, 45 , 217 , 226 - 227 , 231
Adams, George (?-1773), 12 , 13f , 16 , 50
Adhesion, 22 , 30 - 32
Adiabatic gas law, 181 , 214 , 216
Adiabatic phenomena, 66 , 180 , 181 , 194 Irvinist explanation of, 180 n
Affirmation (of existing system of knowledge), 213 , 220 , 224 - 227 , 231 - 233
Affirmations (as defined by Schlick), 222
Air thermometer, 60 , 120 comparability of, 80 - 83 , 96
compared with mercury thermometer, 71 , 79 , 89 , 100 - 101
compared with spirit thermometer, 117 - 118 , 154
compared with Thomson's first absolute temperature, 184 , 188 , 190 , 191t , 204
compared with Thomson's second absolute temperature, 196 - 197 , 214 - 215
constant-pressure, 81 , 137 n, 214
constant-volume, 80 , 87 , 88f , 196t , 214
De Luc and Haüy critical of, 62 n, 67 n
for high temperatures, 137 - 139
Lamé on, 75
Laplace's arguments for, 70 - 74
for low temperatures, 116 - 118
Regnault on, 80 - 81 , 83 , 87 - 89 , 137
as whole-range standard, 154
see also under expansion
Aitken, John (1839-1919), 18 n, 19 n, 35 - 39 , 50 - 51 , 55 , 241
Alcohol. See spirit (of wine)
Alcohol thermometer. See spirit thermometer
Amontons, Guillaume (1663-1738) double-scaled spirit thermometer, 162 - 163
on expansion of air, 61 , 62 n, 99
fixed points used by, 10t
Amontons temperature, 108 , 182 , 194 , 218 . See also absolute temperature; absolute zero
Anac, 108
end p.275
Animal heat, 169
Aniseed oil, 9
Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia, 104
Applicability (of abstract ideas), 234
Approximate truth, 52 , 185 , 190 , 228
Approximation, 203 , 206 , 208 successive, 45 , 214 - 216 , 225 - 226 (see also epistemic iteration)
Aqua fortis, 105
Arago, François (1786-1853), 96
Archimedes's law, 52
Areometry, 78 n, 79
Aristotle, 162
Atkins, P. W., 241 n
Atomic heat. See Dulong and Petit's law
Aubert, Alexander, 11 n
Auxiliary hypotheses, 30 , 94 . See also holism
Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), 162
Banks, Joseph, 121
Barometers (and manometers), 12 n, 14 , 16 , 76 , 78 , 87 , 105 , 200
Beckman, Olof, 160
Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832), 106
Bentley, Thomas, 119
Bergman, Torbern, 113 , 123
Bering, Captain Vitus, 104
Bernoulli, Daniel (1700-1782), 172
Berthelot, Marcelin, 75 , 99
Berthollet, Claude-Louis (1748-1822), 70 , 135 , 171 n
Bertrand, Louis (1731-1812), 166
Bichat, Xavier, 86
Biot, Jean-Baptiste (1774-1862), 12 n, 21 , 51 , 76 , 116 , 174
Black, Joseph (1728-1799), 56 , 62 , 65 , 123 , 176 , 177 apparatus for freezing mercury, 110 , 114
on latent heat, 26 - 27 , 54
Blagden, Charles (1748-1820) on freezing of mercury, 104 - 105 , 111 - 115
on supercooling, 53 - 56
Blainville, H. M. D. de, 97 n
Blood heat, 10 - 11 , 40 - 42
Bloor, David, 236 n, 248 n
Boat metaphor. See Neurath, Otto
Boerhaave, Herman (1668-1738), 57 - 58 , 60 , 225
Bogen, James, 52
Bohm, David, 245
Bohr, Niels, 220
Boiling, 8 - 39 , 246 degree of, 12 , 16 , 20 , 49 - 50
De Luc's phenomenology of, 20 - 21
and evaporation, 38
facilitated by: air, 18 - 19 , 22 , 32 - 34 , 37 , 51 ; dust, 34 , 51 ; solid surfaces, 22
pressure-balance theory of, 29 - 34 , 38 , 48
theories of, by various authors: Cavendish, 24 - 27 , 32 , 35 - 36 , 51 ; De Luc, 17 , 24 ; Donny, 33 ; Gernez, 32 - 34 ; Tomlinson, 34 ; Verdet, 32
superheated, 23 - 28
see also boiling point of water; ebullition; evaporation; steam; superheating
Boiling point of mercury, 119 , 126t , 133
Boiling point of water, 11 - 17 , 241 - 242 affected by: adhesion, 22 , 30 - 32 ; cohesion, 30 - 31 ; depth of water, 17 , 49 ; material of vessel, 21 - 23 , 31 , 49 ; pressure, 12 , 17 , 29 ; sulphur coating, 31
Aitken's definition of, 38
considered indefinite, 12 - 14 , 16 , 25
defined without boiling, 35
fixity of, 48 - 51
as two points, 12 , 13f
see also boiling; steam point; superheating
Bolton, Henry Carrington, 50
Bootstrapping, 45
Boulton, Matthew, 176
Bouty, Edmond, 98
Boyd, Richard, 228 n
Boyer, Carl B., 11 n, 50
Boyle, Robert (1627-1691), 9 , 162 , 162 n, 246
Boyle's law, 71 , 99 , 181 , 190
Brass, 121 , 126t , 130t
Braun,
Joseph Adam (1712?-1768), 105 - 108 , 142
Bridge St. Bridge, 229
Bridgman, Percy Williams (1882-1961), 58 , 141 - 153 , 200 , 203 n, 222 - 223 . See also meaning; operationalism
British Association for the Advancement of Science, 182
Brown, Harold, 95
Brush, Stephen G., 72 n, 172 - 173
Bubbling, 20
Buchwald, Jed, 242
Building, as metaphor for foundation of knowledge, 223 - 224
Bumping, 20 - 21 . See also superheating
Butter, 10
Cagniard de la Tour, Charles (1777?-1859), 22
Callendar, Hugh Longbourne (1863-1930), 213 - 215 , 230
Caloric. See caloric theory; combined caloric; free caloric; free caloric of space; radiant caloric
Caloric theory, 51 , 65 - 67 , 168 - 171 Carnot's acceptance of, 178
chemical, 65 - 67 , 170 - 171 , 202
Irvinist, 65 , 168 - 170 , 171 n, 202
Laplace's, 71 - 74
Lavoisier's, 65 - 66
Calorimetry, 77 n, 139 , 154 , 175 , 192 , 202 by ice, 134 - 136 , 154 , 156 , 192
for pyrometry, 134 - 137
by water, 134 , 136 , 139 , 154 , 192 , 201
Cannon-boring experiment, 171
Carbon, 129
Carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), 81 , 215
Cardinal scale, 229
end p.276
Cardwell, Donald S. L., 66 , 178 , 179 , 181
Carnelly, 55 n
Carnot, Sadi (1796-1832), 97 - 98 , 175 , 232
Carnot engine, 97 , 175 - 176 , 178 - 181 , 191 as an abstraction, 203
as a cycle, 181f , 187 , 189f , 218
as an idealization, 188 , 191 , 208 - 210
Thomson's concrete models of, 187 - 190 , 206 , 208 - 210 : gas-only system, 188 n, 190n; steam-water system, 188 - 191 , 209 - 210
Thomson's reformulation of, 183 - 184
Carnot's coefficient (or multiplier), 183
Carnot's function, 183 - 185
Cartwright, Nancy, 52 , 156 n, 202 n, 206