soft, 136
welding heat of, 126 , 131t , 149
Irvine, William (1743-1787), 65 , 168 . See also Irvinist caloric theory
Irvinist caloric theory, 65 , 168 - 170 , 171 n, 202 adiabatic phenomena explained by, 180 n
Dalton's advocacy of, 66 , 180 n
Isothermal expansion, 209 - 210 in Carnot cycle, 181
of an ideal gas, 193 - 194
Iteration. See epistemic iteration; mathematical iteration
Joule, James Prescott (1818-1889), 173 , 182 , 218 , 242 n collaboration with Thomson, 182 - 186 , 192 (see also Joule-Thomson experiment)
Joule's conjecture, 184 - 185 see also Mayer's hypothesis
Joule-Thomson experiment (and Joule-Thomson effect), 185 , 194 - 197 , 195f , 201 - 202 , 203 - 205 , 211 - 214 , 216 , 218
Justification (epistemic), 6 , 31 , 220 - 225 , 248 avoidance of, 222 - 223
coherentist, 220 , 221 , 223 - 224
foundationalist, 42 , 220 , 221 - 222 : not required in epistemic iteration, 213 , 215 - 216 , 224 , 227
hierarchical, 221 , 223 - 224
of measurement methods/standards, 40 - 44 , 61 , 86 , 155 , 175 , 208 , 221 - 222
of metrological extension, 150
of ontological principles, 91
end p.280
of operationalization of temperature, 205 , 206 , 208
see also testing; validity
Kant, Immanuel, 91
Kelvin, Lord. See Thomson, William
Kinetic theory of gases, 172 - 173 , 201 , 211 , 218
Kinetic theory of heat. See dynamic theory of heat
Kirwan, Richard, 115
Klein, Herbert Arthur, 186 - 187
Knott, Cargill, 35
Kosso, Peter, 86 n, 95
Krebs, Georg (1833-1907), 22 , 242
Kuhn, Thomas S. on affirmation224
on epistemic values, 227 , 228
on normal science, 29 , 231 , 236 - 237
on paradigms, 231 - 232
on theory-ladenness of observation, 52
on validity of past science, 244 , 245
La Hire, Philippe de, 10t
Lakatos, Imre, 84 , 228 , 233 , 244 n
Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728-1777), 61
Lamé, Gabriel (1795-1870), 58t , 74 - 75 , 78 n, 98 n
Langevin, Paul, 75
Laplace, Pierre-Simon (1749-1827), 67 , 96 , 134 - 135 , 170 - 171 on caloric theory, 70 - 74
on gases, 73
ice calorimeter, 134 - 136 , 154 , 156 , 192
Laplacian physics, 70 . See also post-Laplacian empiricism
Latent caloric. See combined caloric
Latent heat in chemical caloric theory, 67 , 170 - 171
of fusion/freezing, 54 , 105 n, 110 , 114 , 134
Irvinist conception of, 65 , 168 - 170 , 198
of steam, 26 , 177 , 189 - 190
see also combined caloric; supercooling
Latour, Bruno, 248
La Tour, Cagniard de. See Cagniard de la Tour, Charles
Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent (1743-1794), 14 , 29 n, 33 n, 123 , 244 n collaborators of, 67 , 128 , 134
caloric theory, 65 - 66 , 67 , 170 - 171
ice calorimeter, 134 - 136 , 154 , 156 , 192
Law of cooling. See cooling, Newton's law of
Lead, 52 , 130t
Leapfrogging, 154 - 155
Le Chatelier, Henri-Louis (1850-1936), 127 , 139 , 140 n, 141 , 213 - 216 , 230
Length, Bridgman's discussion of, 144 - 146 , 222 - 223
Leonelli, Sabina, 244 n, 246
Le Sage (the Younger), George-Louis (1724-1803), 62
Leslie, John (1766-1832), 169
Light, as a chemical element, 65
Linearity (with respect to temperature) of contraction of clay, 126 - 128 , 133 - 134 , 153
of thermometers, 59 , 60 - 61 , 89 - 90 , 93 , 101 - 102 , 117 - 118
see also expansion
Linseed oil, 61
Locke, John, 106
Lodwig, T. H., 135
Low-level laws. See middle-level regularities
Low temperatures, production and measurement of, 104 - 118
Lunar Society of Birmingham, 14 , 113 , 176
Lycan, William G., 225 , 227 , 228
Mach, Ernst, 43 n, 97 , 232
Manometers. See barometers
Marcet, Alexandre, 22
Marcet, François (1803-1883), 22 - 23 , 27 - 28 , 31 , 51
Marcet, Jane, 22
Margenau, Henry, 198 , 199f
Mariotte, Edme, 9
Mariotte's law. See Boyle's law
Martine, George (1702-1741), 61 , 161t
Maskelyne, Nevil, 11 n
Matching, 206 , 215 . See also operationalization
Material realization of a definition, 203
Material theory of heat. See caloric theory
Mathematical iteration, 45 - 46
Matousek, J. W., 103 , 140 n
Matthews, Michael, 250 n
Maxwell, Grover, 85
Maxwell, James Clerk, 39
Mayer, Julius Robert (1814-1878), 194
Mayer's hypothesis, 194 , 211 . See also Joule's conjecture
Mayo, Deborah, 226
McKendrick, Neil, 127
McNab, John, 115
Meaning, 51 , 157 , 208 n Bridgman on, 142 - 152
and definition, 149 - 151
operational, 149 - 152 , 197 , 199 , 203
reductive doctrine of, 148 - 152
as use, 150 - 151
verification theory of, 148
see also extension
Measurement methods. See under justification; testing; validity. See also operationalization; standards
Mechanical effect. See work
Mechanical philosophy, 162 , 171
Mechanical theory of heat. See dynamic theory of heat
Mechanical work. See work
Medical thermometry, 40 n, 60
Meikle, Henry, 73 n
Melloni, Macedonio, 140 n
end p.281
Melting point, 126t , 130t-132t , 139 brass, 121 , 126t , 130t
butter, 10
copper, 126t , 131t , 136 , 138 n
gold, 126t , 129 , 131t , 141 n
ice, 53 , 55 , 135 (see also freezing point of water)
iron, 119 , 126t , 129 , 131t - 132t , 136 , 139 , 141 n, 149
lead, 52 , 130t
silver, 126t , 131t , 138 , 138 n, 141 n, 149 , 153
zinc, 130t , 137
Mendeléeff, Dmitri, 75
Mercury boiling point of, 119 , 126t , 133
considered essentially fluid, 105 , 227
expansion of, 59 , 62 - 64 , 67 - 68 , 114 , 133 , 153
freezing of, 104 - 107
freezing point of, 107 - 118
needed for air thermometers, 120
supercooling of, 53
Mercury thermometer comparison with air thermometer, 71 , 79 , 89 , 100 - 101
comparison with platinum pyrometer, 133
comparison with spirit thermometer, 58 - 59 , 64t , 78t , 107 - 109 , 115 , 154
comparison with Wedgwood pyrometer, 123 - 125 , 133 , 149
criticized, 67 - 68 , 71 , 79 - 80 , 94
De Luc's arguments for, 62 - 64 , 107 - 109
failing at high temperatures, 103 , 119
failing at low temperatures, 103 , 105 - 106 , 142 - 143
favored over others, 60 , 61 , 62 - 64 , 78 n, 152
used in air thermometers, 87 - 89
used in Joule-Thomson experiment, 197 , 202 , 204 - 205 , 216
used to measure freezing point of mercury, 110 - 115
see also under expansion
Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648), 162
Metallic thermometers. See under pyrometry
Metallic vessels for boiling water, 16 , 21 , 25f , 49
Meteorology, 14 , 35 - 36 , 50 , 160
Method of mixtures. See mixtures, method of
Methodology, 248 - 249
&nb
sp; Metrological extension, 150 , 152 , 157
Micheli du Crest. See du Crest
Microscopes, 85 - 86 , 166
Middle-level regularities (or low-level laws), 52 , 218 . See also empirical laws, phenomenological laws
Middleton, W. E. Knowles, 11 n, 14 n, 19 n, 41 , 61 , 200 n
Millikan, Robert, 166 , 244
Minimalism, 77 , 94 - 96
Mixtures, Fahrenheit's experiments on, 225
Mixtures, method of, 60 - 68 , 93 - 94 , 108 , 136 Black's use of, 62
Crawford's use of, 66 , 68
Dalton's critique of, 66
De Luc's use of, 62 - 64 , 68 , 93 - 94 , 136
Haüy's critique of, 67 - 68
Le Sage's suggestion of, 62
Taylor's use of, 61
Models, 186 - 190 , 206 semi-concrete, 188
see also imaging
Molecules, 56 , 137 , 212 action of: in boiling, 31 - 32 , 37 n, 38 ; in thermal expansion, 63 , 67
in dynamic theories of heat, 172 - 173 , 201
in Laplace's caloric theory, 71 - 73
Moore, G. E., 43
Morgan, Mary, 206 n
Morris, Robert J., 244 n
Morrison, Margaret, 206 n
Mortimer, Cromwell, 120 n, 132 n
Morveau. See Guyton de Morveau, Louis-Bernard
Murray, John (1778?-1820), 119 n, 122 , 167 , 169
Muschenbroek, Petrus van (1692-1761), 164
Musgrave, Alan, 244 n
Mutual grounding, 117 - 118 , 156 - 158 , 223
Napoleon, 67 , 75
Narratives, 233
National Maritime Museum (Greenwich), 160
Naturalistic epistemology, 249
Neurath, Otto, 156 - 157 , 222 n, 223 , 236 n
Newcomen engine, 176
Newman, William, 242
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) on blood heat, 10 - 11 , 40 - 41
on boiling point of water, 12 , 13f , 50
law of cooling, 120 , 137
temperature scale, 11 - 13
Nomic measurement, problem of, 59 , 89 - 90 , 120
Normal science, 29 , 231 , 236 - 237 . See also specialist science
Normative judgments (on science), 248 , 249
Northfield Mount Hermon School, 229
Novel predictions, 228
Numerical thermometers. See thermometers, numerical
Observability (and unobservability), 59 , 84 - 86 , 96 - 97 , 134 , 147 n, 166 , 171 , 197 - 198 , 232
Observation. See observability; sensation; theory-ladenness of observation
Oils as thermometric fluids, 60 , 61 , 64
One-point method, 11 n
Ontological principles, 91 - 92
Operational extension, 150
Operational meaning, 149 - 152 , 197 , 199 , 203
Operationalism (operationism), 58 , 142 - 147 , 148 , 151 , 208 n. See also Bridgman, Percy Williams
Operationalization, 173 , 197 - 219 , 222 of heat, 201 - 202
reductive view of, 197 - 202
of Thomson's first absolute temperature, 187 - 192 , 201
end p.282
of Thomson's second absolute temperature, 192 - 197 , 212f
as a two-step process, 206 - 208 (see also imaging; matching)
validity of, 205 - 212
Ordinal scale, 41 , 87 , 221 , 229
Osborn, H. C., 141 n
Overdetermination, 93 - 94
Overlap condition, 152 - 155
Pallas, Peter Simon (1741-1811), 106 - 107
Paradigm, 231 - 232 , 245
Paris Observatory, 9
Pasteur, Louis, 32
Péclet, E., 141
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 45 , 46f , 226
Petit, Alexis-Thérèse (1791-1820), 74 , 134 in post-Laplacian empiricism, 96 - 98 , 232
on thermometry, 79 , 100 - 102 , 136 , 137
Phase changes. See changes of state
Phenomenalism, 96 - 98 , 203 , 232
Phenomenological laws, 154 - 155 , 157 , 218 . See also empirical laws, middle-level regularities
Philosophy relation to history of science, 233 - 234 , 236 , 239 - 240
relation to science, 238 - 239
Philosophy of modern physics, 244 - 245
Phlogiston, 244
Pictet, Marc-Auguste (1752-1825), 67 n, 123 , 164 - 167 , 242 , 246
Platinum, 128 in air thermometer, 138 - 139 , 154
expansion of, 128 - 129 , 133 - 134
melting point of, 132t
pyrometry, 128 - 134 , 156 - 157
specific heat of, 139
Plausible denial, 49 , 55
Pluralism, 228 , 231 - 233 , 247
Pluralistic traditionalism, 232 - 233
Poincaré, Henri, 59 , 91 , 222
Poisson, Siméon-Denis (1781-1840), 73 , 98 n
Polanyi, Michael, 224
Popp, Brian, 167 n, 172 n, 242
Popper, Karl R., 52 , 82 , 95 , 169 , 224 , 235 , 237
Porous-plug experiment. See Joule-Thomson experiment
Positivism, 74 , 97 , 144 , 232
Post-Laplacian empiricism, 75 , 96 - 98 , 232
Pouillet, Claude-Servais-Mathias (1790-1868), 116 - 118 , 119 n, 137 n, 139 , 140 , 154
Pragmatic virtues, 227
Precision, 21 , 44 , 80 , 90 , 139 , 158 assumed in theoretical concepts, 145 , 201
as an epistemic virtue, 227 , 229 , 231
in post-Laplacian empiricism, 97 - 98
Regnault's achievement of, 75 - 76 , 98 - 100 , 174
Pressure as an abstract concept, 200 - 201
in Bridgman's work, 142 - 143
see also under boiling; boiling point of water; steam; vapor
Pressure-balance theory of boiling. See under boiling
Preston, Thomas, 34 , 198 - 201
Prevost, Pierre (1751-1839), 71
Principle of respect. See respect, principle of
Principle of single value. See single value, principle of
Prinsep, James (1799-1840), 138 - 139
Problem-centered narrative, 5 , 240
Problem of nomic measurement. See nomic measurement, problem of
Progress, scientific by epistemic iteration, 6 , 44 - 46 , 220 , 223 - 234
imperative of, 44
by mutual grounding, 157
and observations, 14 , 85 - 87 , 99 - 100
through revolutions, 245
Psillos, Stathis, 228 n
Ptolemy, 244
Pyle, Andrew J., 162 n
Pyramid, 11
Pyrometry, 118 - 141 , 149 air, 137 - 139
clay, 60 , 118 - 128 , 153 - 157
convergence of results in, 130t - 132t , 140 - 141
by cooling, 120 , 136 - 137
electric-resistance, 140 n
by ice calorimetry, 134 - 136
metallic, 120 , 154
optical, 140 n
platinum, 128 - 134 , 156
radiation, 140 n
thermoelectric, 140 n
by water calorimetry, 136
Quantum mechanics, 52 n, 157 n, 245
Quicksilver. See mercury
Quine, Willard van Orman, 156 - 157 , 223
Radiant caloric, 71 - 72
Radiant cold, 166 - 168
Radiant heat, 140 n, 164 - 168
Radiation, nature of, 246
Rain, 14 , 36
Realism, 46 , 59 , 85 , 90 , 94 , 151 , 166 , 217
Réaumur, R. A. F. de (1683-1757), 58 - 59 , 60 temperature scale, 10t , 13f , 16 n, 63 , 107 n
Recovery of forgotten knowledge, 5 , 237 , 240 , 241 - 243
Red heat, 125 , 126 , 126t , 130t , 136
Reduction. See operationalization: reductive view of
Reductive doctrine of meaning. See under meaning
Regnault, Henri Victor (1810-1878), 75 - 102 , 174 - 175 , 203 on air thermometer, 80 - 83 , 87 - 89 , 137
career, 75
on comparability, 77 ,
79 - 83 , 89 - 92 , 155 , 223 , 245
end p.283
data on steam, 29 , 30t , 75 , 190 , 210
on expansion of gases, 81 - 82 , 211 , 216
experimental style, 76
on mercury thermometer, 79 - 80
minimalism, 94 - 96
and post-Laplacian empiricism, 98 - 102
precision, 75 - 76 , 98 - 100 , 174
against theories76 , 82 - 83 , 86 , 98 - 100 , 232
on thermometric standards, 86 - 89
Regularity of expansion. See expansion; linearity
Relativism, 233
Renaldini, Carlo, 10t , 47t
Replication of past experiments, 242 - 243 , 246
Respect, principle of, 43 - 46 , 155 , 225 - 226 , 231
Reversibility, 185 , 187 , 192 , 206 , 208 , 209 - 210 , 218
Robustness, 28 , 51 - 52 , 55 , 218
Rømer, Ole, 10t
Rottschaefer, W. A., 95 n
Round-earth coherentism, 223 - 224
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 14
Rowlinson, J. S., 241 n, 242 n
Royal Society, 9 n, 24 , 109 - 110 , 121 , 160 n, 162 n, 173 committee on thermometry, 11 - 12 , 16 - 17 , 21 , 24 - 27 , 35 , 38 , 49 - 51 , 111
thermometer (temperature scale), 160 - 162
various fellows and officers of, 8 , 14 , 53 , 54 , 61 , 121
Rumford, Count (1753-1814), 123 , 164 n, 167 - 168 , 171 - 172 , 246
Sage. See Le Sage
Salvétat, Alphonse, 141 n
Sanctorius, 10t , 41 n
Saturated steam. See steam
Saturated vapor. See vapor
Saunders, Simon, 231
Savery engine, 176 n
Scales. See cardinal scale; ordinal scale
Scepticism. See skepticism
Schaffer, Simon, 246
Scherer, A. N., 129 n
Schlick, Moritz, 222
Schmidt, J. G., 138
Science education, 250
Scientific method. See methodology
Scientific progress. See progress, scientific
Scientific realism. See realism
Scientific revolutions, 245
Scope (as an epistemic virtue), 227 , 230
Seebeck, Thomas, 140 n
Séguin, Armand, 123
Self-correction, 6 , 44 - 45 , 226 , 228 , 230 - 231