influence of, 521
Soubise, Charles de Rohan, Prince de (1715–87), 48–49, 53, 67
extravagance of, 84
tactics of, 50
Soufflot, Jacques-Germain (1713–80), 110 , 120
South Africa, 646
South Carolina, 708
Southey, Robert (1774–1843), 631
South Sea “Bubble,” 796
South Sea Company, 279
Souvré, General, 95
Spa, 342, 361
Spain, 273–309
agriculture in, 273–74, 287–88
Alberoni’s reforms, 277
alliance against England (1779), 871
ambitions in Italy, 277–78
American colonies of, 273, 288, 871
American Revolution and, 290, 713
architecture in, 297
art in, 285–86, 297–309
Austria and, 277–78
Austrian Netherlands and, 45
Catholic Church in, 246, 274–76, 279, 281, 283–85, 290, 292–95, 302, 306, 317
censorship in, 285
concordat with papacy, 246, 279
conflict with papacy, 318
drama in, 296
dress in, 291
dynastic conflicts in, 273
education in, 275–76, 287, 293–94
England and, 273, 277–78, 290, 669, 713, 761
Enlightenment in, 280–81
expulsion from Florida, 709
expulsion of Jesuits from, 281, 283–85, 293, 317
Farinelli in, 223, 279, 292
Florence and, 228
Florida returned to (1783), 714
France and, 277–78, 280, 293, 296–98, 306–7
geography of, 273
Gibraltar and, 290
guilds in, 289
individualism in, 293
industries, commerce, and natural resources of, 273–74, 286–89
Inquisition in, 275–76, 279, 280, 292, 294–95, 302, 306
intellectual activity in, 293–97
Italian opera in, 224, 292
Italy and, 217, 226
Jesuits in, 275, 281, 283–85, 293, 317
Jews in, 275–76, 285, 287, 630–31
Joseph Bonaparte in, 296–98, 306–7
land reform in, 287–88
Liberals in, 306
literature in, 295–96
Milan and, 226
Minorca returned to (1783), 714
morality and marriage in, 290–91
Moslems in, 283, 285
music and dancing in, 224, 291–92
Naples and, 217, 228, 250, 273, 277–78, 315
national character of, 290–92
Peace of Versailles (1783) and, 290
population of, 273
Portugal and, 262–63, 268
Protestants in, 285
reign of Charles III,. 281–90, 291
reign of Charles IV, 302–4, 306
reign of Ferdinand VI, 279–81
reign of Ferdinand VII, 306–7
reign of Philip V, 276–79
religious orders in, 294, 295
Scarlatti in, 257, 279, 292
in Seven Years’ War, 60, 62, 290
social classes in, 274, 280, 289–90
taxation in, 288
Treaty of Versailles (1756) and, 42
Turkey and, 288
war against Moors in, 283
war against papacy (1768) in, 317
war of liberation in, 296, 306–7; see also Spanish Succession, War of the
Spanish Academy, 295
Spanish America, 273, 288, 871
Spanish Armada, 842
Spanish Hapsburgs, 273
Spanish Netherlands, 273
Spanish Succession, War of the (1702–13), 42, 273, 297, 630, 646, 669
Sparta, 21, 253
influence on Rousseau, 177
philosophes and, 898
Spectator, 320
Spencer, Lord Robert, 753
spinning jenny, 673
spinning wheel, 673
Spinoza, Baruch (1632–77), 510, 557, 562, 565, 578, 619
anti-rationalist reaction to, 519
Lessing’s views on, 516
Moses Mendelssohn adheres to, 638
Spirit of Laws, The (Montesquieu), 320, 797, 808
Catherine II on, 435
Sprecher (commander of Breslau), 52
Sprüche in Prosa (Goethe), 618
Squillaci, Marchese de’ (fl. 1761), 282
Stackelberg, Count Otto von (fl. 1764), 479
Staël, Germaine de, nee Necker, Baronne de Staël-Holstein (1766–1817), 103, 118, 188, 506, 644, 647, 891, 908, 961
on Austria, 345
on culture in Weimar, 553
death of, 908
early life of, 908
Gibbón and, 802
on Guibert, 128
on La Nouvelle Héloïse, 170
on morality of German courts, 504
on Rousseau, 887
salon of, 908
on Schiller, 604
Staffordshire, potteries in, 749
Stamitz, Johann (1717–57), 221, 380–81
Stamp Act (1765), 700–1, 709–10, 868
Stanislas I Leszczyński, King of Poland (r. 1704–9, 1733–35), ruler of Lorraine and Bar (r. 1737–66), 23, 24, 34, 86, 430, 475–76.
Stanislas II Augustus (Stanislas Poniatowski), King of Poland (r. 1764–95), 120, 473, 477–90
aid from Russia, 478–81, 483–84
appearance and personality of, 477–78, 489–92
attempts to strengthen monarchy, 476, 480
Catherine II and, 436–37, 460, 478–81, 487, 489
Confederation of Bar and, 482–83
conflict with Russians, 488–89
correspondence with Voltaire, 139
death of, 492
difficulties with nobility, 479
early life of, 477–78
election to kingship, 477
final dismemberment and, 491–92
first partition of Poland and, 484
foils Frederick II’s partition plan, 479–81
Mme. Geoffrin and, 121, 477–78
intellectual interest of, 478–79
literature and, 485–86
love affairs of, 479
promotes Enlightenment in Poland, 485
second partition and, 488–91
succession to, 487
Starhemberg, Count Georg Adam von (fl. 1753), 41–42
Starov, Ivan (1743–1808), 469
State of Prisons in England and Wales, … and an Account of Some Foreign Prisons (Howard), 738
States-General, French (1789), 84, 938
cahiers of, 950–51
conflict between classes in, 957–61
conflicts with King, 958–61
declares itself National Assembly, 958
demands for, 945–47
disputes over organization of, 949
early demands of, 92
electoral arrangements for, 949–51
as feudal institution, 946
national hopes for, 951
number of deputies in, 956
opening of (1789), 956
summoning of (1788), 948
Statute of Popular Schools (1786), Russian, 453
steam engines, 70, 673–76, 932
Steele, Sir Richard (1672–1729), 732
Steevens, George (1736–1800), 830
Stein, Charlotte von, nee von Schardt (1742–1827), 521, 588, 589, 590, 600, 603
appearance of, 582
death of, 626
in Goethe’s Tasso, 584–85
love affair with Goethe, 582–84, 586
Schiller and, 591
Stein, Fritz von (b. 1773), 583, 588
Stein, Johann Andreas (1728–92), 390
Stein, Baron Josias Gottlob von (1735–93), 582–83
Sterne, Elizabet
h, nee Lumley, 787, 789
Sterne, Laurence (1713–68), 465, 750, 787–90, 791, 793, 842
death of, 790; Diderot and, 789
domestic difficulties of, 787
early life and education of, 787
Elizabeth Draper and, 789–90
influence of, 518
love affairs of, 787, 789–90
success as author, 789
tour of France, 789
writes Sentimental Journey, 789–90
writes Tristram Shandy, 787–89
Sterne, Lydia, 787
Sterne, Richard (1596?–1683), Archbishop of York, 787
Stillingfleet, Benjamin (1702–71), 730
Stock, Dorothea (1760–1832), 572–73
Stock, Minna (1762–1843), 572–73
Stockholm, Treaties of (1719–20), 653
Stockholmsposten, 661–62
Stoke-on-Trent, 749
Stolberg, Count Christian zu (1748–1821), 566
on Weimar court, 552
Stolberg, Count Friedrich Leopold zu (1750–1819), 566
Stormont, David Murray, Lord (1728?–83), 730
Stosch, Baron Philipp von (1690–1757), 328
Stradivari, Antonio (1644?–1737), 221
Strahan, William (1715–85), 212, 786, 800
Stratford-on-Avon, 743
Stravaganze del conte (Cimarosa), 334
Strawberry Hill at Twickenham, 747, 793, 795, 809
Streicher, Andreas, 571–72
Streit der Fakultäten, Der (Kant), 547
strikes, labor, 933–34
Strinasacchi, Regina (1764-C.1823), 396–97
Struensee, Johann Friedrich (1737–72), 652–53
Stuart, Charles Edward, Count of Albany, the Young Pretender (1720–88), 51, 53, 137, 635
marriage and death of, 339
Stuart, James Francis Edward (“James III”), the Old Pretender (1688–1766), 247
Stuart dynasty and Tories, 699
Study of Works of Art, The (Winckelmann), 328
Sturm und Drang (Klinger), 521–22
Sturm und Drang movement, 63, 345, 388, 511, 520–22, 661
aims of, 520, 522
Goethe and, 560–61
Herder and, 569
Kant’s influence on, 551
Schiller and, 570–71, 593
social concepts of, 522
Wieland and, 576
Styria, 341, 358
Suard, Jean-Baptiste (1733–1817), 131, 214, 894
Suard, Mme., nee Panckoucke (1750–1830), 873, 894
Suárez, Francisco (1548–1617), 177
Subterranean Journey of Niels Klim (Holberg), 650–51
Sudbury, sale of votes in, 685
Sumarokov, Alexis Petrovich (1718–77), 427–28
Summa theologiae (St. Thomas Aquinas), 241
Sunni sect, 412, 418–19
superstition and Catholic Church, 316
Supplément au Voyage de Bougainville (Diderot), 31
Sur la législation et la commerce des grains (Necker), 860, 867
Sur la régéneration physique, morale, et politique des Juifs (Grégoire), 642
Süssmayr, Franz Xaver (1766–1803), 408
Sutherland, Elizabeth Gordon, Countess of, 758
Suvorov, Aleksander Vasilievich (1729–1800), 455, 460, 470
in dismemberment of Poland, 491–92
tomb of, 467
Svarez, K. G. (1780), 500
Svea Rikes Historia (Dalin), 659
Svensksund, battle of (1790), 664
Sweden, 653–65
aid to Turkey, 363
army reforms in, 657
art in, 662
coup against Riksdag, 657
Denmark and, 654, 663–64
drama in, 659
economy of, 657, 662
education in, 657, 659
Enlightenment in, 658–62
France and, 89, 654
free press in, 657
government structure of, 654
growing power of nobles of, 654–55, Jews in, 635, 657
in League of Armed Neutrality (1780), 457, 713
legal reforms in, 657
literature in, 659–62
Poland and, 475–76
Prussia and, 653–54, 663
reign of Adolphus Frederick, 655
reign of Charles XII, 653
reign of Frederick I, 654
reign of Gustavus III, 655–65, religious tolerance in, 657
Russia and, 458, 460, 653–56, 663–64
science in, 658–59
social classes in, 654–55, 657, 663–64
taxation in, 654
territorial losses of, 653–54; Turkey and, 460
weakening of monarchy of, 654–55
IN SEVEN YEARS’ WAR: Invasion of Pomerania, 54
pledge to Austria, 45–46
Pomerania promised to Sweden, 45–46, 48
results of conflict, 63
Swedenborg, Emmanuel (1688–1772), 658
Swieten, Gerhard van (1700–72), 343, 355
Swieten, Baron Gottfried van (1734–1803), 379, 395–96
Swift, Jonathan (1667–1745), 485, 759, 790, 842
Switzerland, 143, 643–45
art in, 644–45
banking in, 643
cantonal confederation in, 643
conflict of middle class with patricians, 143
conflicts over franchise in, 643–44
education in, 644, 888
Enlightenment in, 645
French Revolution and, 644, 645, 805–6
French subsidies to, 89
internal divisions in, 643
Jews in, 639
manufacturing and commerce in, 643
oligarchy in, 142
peasants in, 27
population of, 643
Rousseau’s flight to, 189
symphonic music: evolution of, 221, 528
rise of, 526
Syria, 411
Système de la nature (Holbach), 572, 618
Szczekociny, battle of (1794), 491
Tableau de Paris (Mercier), 901, 919
Tableau économique (Quesnay), 73–74
Tableau philosophique des progrès successifs de l’esprit humain (Turgot), 77
Taboureau de Réau (fl. 1776), 866
Tacitus, Caius Cornelius (55?–120?), 435
Taganrog, 458
Tahmasp II, Shah of Persia (r. 1730–32), 418
Taine, Hippolyte (1828–93), 588, 897
Talavera, 288
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de (1754–1838), 606, 644, 875, 955, 957–58
Talma, François Joseph (1763–1828), 607, 920
Talmont, Mme. de, 118
Talmud, 629, 635
Tambirini, Pietro (1737–1827), 316
Tambroni, Clotilda (1758–1817), 219
Tancrède (Voltaire), 136, 874
Tanucci, Marchese Bernardo di (1698–1783), 249, 250, 315, 327
Goethe on, 589
reforms of, 142
seizes papal cities, 317
tapestry, 910
Targowica, Confederation of, 488–90
tariffs: Austrian, 344
French, 935
Tartaglia (comic figure), 241, 243, 452, 455–56
Tartini, Giuseppe (1692–1770), 221, 229
Tartuffe (Molière), 923
Task, The (Cowper), 811–12
Tasso, Torquato (1544–95), 464
Tatishchev, Vasili Nikitich (1686–1750), 426–27
Taurida,. Jews in, 633
Taurida Palace, 469
Tavares de Sequeira, Dr. Eusebio (fl. 1758), 265
Tavora, Dom Francisco de Assiz, Marquis of (d. 1759), 263–65
Tavora, Dona Leonor, Marchioness of (d. 1759), 263
Tavora, Dom Luis Bernardo de Assiz, “Younger Marquis” of (d. 1759), 263
taxation: in American colonies, 709–10
in Austria, 356–57
in Engl
and, 686
in France, 931, 935–36, 944, 959
in Hungary, 341
in Persia, 420
physiocratic theory of, 73
in Prussia, 500–01
Rousseau’s theory of, 174
in Russia, 424, 470
in Spain, 288
in Sweden, 654
Voltaire’s views on, 147
Taxation No Tyranny (Johnson), 833
tax farmers in France, 935–36
Taylor, Dr. John (1711–88), 822
tea drinking in England, 729
Teatro alla moda, 223, 234
Teatro alla Scala, 312
Teatro Capranico, 257
Teatro crítico (Feijóo y Montenegro), 294
Teatro Filarmonico of Verona, 245
Teatro Reale, 245
Teatro San Cario of Naples, 250
technology: Industrial Revolution and, 671–76
machine-wrecking and, 679
Télémaque (Fénelon), 179, 450
Telemann, Georg Philipp (1681–1767), 526
Teller, Wilhelm Abraham (1734–1804), 507
tenant farmers, 274
Tencin, Claudine-Alexandrine Guérin, Marquise de (1681–1749), 119, 123
Tencin, Pierre Guérin, Cardinal de (1679–1758), 47–48, 246
Tennis Court Oath (1789), 958–59
Terence (184?–159? B.C.), 241, 508, 650
Teresapol, battle of (1794), 491
Terray, Abbé Joseph-Marie (1715–78), 89–90
Terror, Reign of, 496, 725
Tersac, Jean de (fl. 1778), 876, 879, 893
Teschen, Treaty of (1779), 354
Tessin, Count Carl Gustaf (1695–1770), 654, 658, 662
Tessin, Nicodemus (1654–1728), 662
Testa, bishop of Monreale (d. 1773), 316
Test Act (1673), 760, 761
Testament (Messlier), 80, 141
Teutonic Order, 484
teutsche Merkur, Der, 506, 555, 591
textile industry: in England, 672–73, 676, 678
in France, 932
Textor, Johann Wolfgang, 556
Thames River, 745
theater, 245
in Austria, 346
bourgeoisie and, 104
in Denmark, 650–51
in England, 695–96, 739–43, 815–16
in France, 101–6, 920–26
in Germany, 509–10, 513–15, 560–61, 584–85, 588, 592, 601–3, 604–5
in Italy, 220, 232, 239–44, 336–40
in Poland, 486
in Portugal, 260
Rousseau’s theories of, 163
in Russia, 463–65
in Sweden, 659
Voltaire’s contribution to, 136–37
Theatines, 224
Théâtre des Italiens, 113, 244
Théâtre-Français, 101, 102, 147, 256, 920
Théâtre National de l’Odéon, 910
Theophrastus (d. c. 287 B.C.), 508
Théorie de l’impôt (Mirabeau père), 74
Theory of Moral Sentiments (Smith), 769
“Theory of the Weather, The” (Goethe), 615
Theresa, Saint (1515–82), 267