There is a wealth of fine literature on black education. Those interested in the antebellum period in the South should consult Janet Cornelius, “We Slipped and Learned to Read: Slave Accounts of the Literacy Process, 1830-1865,” Phylon 44, no. 2 (September 1983): 171-86. The definitive work is James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), which offers a detailed analysis of the efforts of blacks to establish and maintain schools. A chapter by Herbert Gutman titled “Schools for Freedom: The Post-Emancipation Origins of Afro-American Education,” in Ira Berlin, ed., Herbert Gutman, Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York: New Press, 1987), 260-97, also highlights the efforts by blacks to support their own educational endeavors. The establishment of historically black colleges and universities are nicely dealt with in Clarence A. Bacote, The Story of Atlanta University: A Century of Service, 1865-1965 (Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University, 1969); Rayford W. Logan, Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867-1967 (New York: New York University Press, 1968); and Robert Francis Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861-1890 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979).
Several excellent works on black religion exist. Although dated, E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Church in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1974), and Carter G. Woodson, The History of the Negro Church (Washington, DC: Associated Publishers, 1921), are both still solid. Wilson Fallin Jr., The African-American Church in Birmingham, Alabama, 1815-1963: A Shelter in the Storm (New York: Garland, 1997), provides good coverage of the black church on the local level. Reginald F. Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange and Stirring: Methodist Preachers and the Crisis of Emancipation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), is the best book on black Methodist preachers during emancipation. William E. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), is probably the best book on the black church during emancipation and Reconstruction.
Although Thomas Holt, Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), is by far the most thorough work on black politicians during Reconstruction, there are many fine works on the subject that proved beneficial to this study. For example, see Edmund L. Drago, Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed., Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); and Peggy Lamson, The Glorious Failure: Black Congressman Robert Brown Elliott and the Reconstruction in South Carolina (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1973).
INDEX
Abbott, Anderson
Adams, Henry
Addeman, J. M.
Adoption
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church; General Conference
African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) Church
CSS Alabama
Albright, George Washington
Alcoholism
Alford, Barney
Allen, Benjamin
Allen, Hannah
Allen, John
Allen, Rachel
Allen, Thomas
Allen, W. B.
Allen University
Alston, Miss
Alvord, John W.
American Equal Rights Association (AERA)
American Medical Association
American Missionary Association (AMA); founds or purchases colleges
American Woman Suffrage Association
Ames, Alexander
Ames, Mary
Amnesty Proclamation of
Anderson, James
Anderson, John P.
Anderson, Louisa
Anderson, Milly
Anderson, Robert J.
Andersonville Prison
Andrews, Eliza
Andrews, Sidney
Anthony, Susan B.
Anti-Slavery Reporter
Antonine. C.
Apprenticeship
Armstrong, Jennie
Armstrong, Samuel Chapman
Army, Confederate: debate on arming African Americans; realities harsh for; recruits in South
Army, Union: black men forced to become laborers for; blacks joining
Ashley, James
Ashmore, Charlie
Ates, Caroline
Atkins, Lizzie
Atlanta University
Attucks, Crispus
Augusta, Alexander T.
Austin, Hattie
Ayers, James T.
Bailey, Tolbert
Baker, Hager Ann
Baker, Lizzie
Baker, Wallace
Baltimore, William
Banks
Banks, Anna DeCosta
Banks, Elizabeth
Banks, Evangeline
Banks, John
Banks, N. P.
Banks, Sammy
Baptists and Baptist Church
Barber, Ed
Barber, Mollie
Barber-Scotia College
Barbour, Mary
Barksdale, Penny
Bates, Millie
Beals, Harriet
Beasley, Robert
Beckett, Harrison
Beecher, Frances
Beecher, Henry Ward
Beecher, James
Bell, Charlie
Bell, Laura
Benedict, Augustus W.
Benedict College
Benevolent and aid societies. See also Freedmen’s Bureau
Bennett College
Berry, Dick
Best, Nathan
Black, Dan
Black, Jessie
Black, Sarah Ann
Black, Tamsey
Blackley, Annie
Blocker, Irena
Body servants
Boggan, Manda
Boles, John
Bolton, James
Bonner, Lewis
Boone, Andrew
Booth, Ella
Booth, John Wilkes
Border states
Bormer, Betty
Boston Massacre
Botume, Elizabeth Hyde
Bowles, John R.
Boyd, Belle
Bradford, Elodga
Bradley, Edmond
Bradley, Solomon
Bradshaw, Tillman
Bratcher, Minerva
Bremer, Fredrika
Brewer, Dora
Brittian, James
Brock, John C.
Brooke, Edward
Brooks, Dandridge
Brooks, James
Brooks, William
Brown, Caesar
Brown, Charlotte
Brown, Clara
Brown, Dinah
Brown, Emily
Brown, F. H.
Brown, George
Brown, James
Brown, John
Brown, Joseph
Brown, Mary
Brown, Mary Jane
Brown, Washington
Brown Fellowship Society of Charleston
Bruce, Blanch K.
Bryant, David
Bryant, Furney
Bryant, William
Buchanan, Alfred
Buchanan, Harriet
Buffalo Soldiers
Bullitt, Sandy
Burbridge, Stephen G.
Burnside, John
Burrell, Wesley
Burson, Sebe
Burton, Annie L.
Burton, Martha
Businesses, black; failed
Butler, Benjamin
Butler, Gabe
Butler, Henry
Byrd, Dave
Cain, Richard H.
Calloway, Jane Johnson
Camp Nelson
Cancer, Polly Turner
Cardozo, Francis L.
Cardozo, T. W.
Cardozo, Thomas
Carey, Mary Ann Shadd
Carpenters
Carruthers, Richard
Carter, Anthony E.
Carter, Cato
Carter, Lucy
Carter, Nelson
Caulkers
Chamberlain, Daniel
Chapman, Hannah
Charleston, South Carolina; churches in; liberation and Union occupation of; schools in
Charleston Mercury
Chase, G. Thurston
Chase, Jordan
Chase, Sarah
Cheatham, John J.
Cherokee freedmen; struggle of
Cherokee Nation
Chesapeake Marine Railroad and Dry Dock Company
Chester, Thomas Morris
Chestnut, A. J.
Chickasaw Nation
Child labor. See also Apprenticeship
Children, black: impact of war on; punishment of; white children teaching. See also Families
Childs, Mary
Child support
Chiles, George Washington
Chiriqui colonization scheme
Choctaw Nation
Christian Index
Christian Recorder
Churches; antebellum; biracial; blacks’ struggle to establish and maintain; burnings of; denominations attracting blacks; discipline of; impact on politics; as institution central to black community; segregation in; and slavery; Southern white opposition to black; support for education; women’s struggle to gain acceptance into ministry
Cities and towns: migration to; urban former slaves. See also Migration
Civil and political rights; blacks’ struggle to hold onto. See also Social equality; Voting rights
Civil Rights Act of
Civil Rights Act of
Civil War: battles, beginning of; efforts to assist Union cause short of fighting; Lincoln on objective of
Claflin College
Clark, Indian
Clark, Rena
Clay, Henry
Cleburne, Patrick R.
Clothing
Cobb, Howell
Coffin, Charles
Coleman, Eli
Coleman, Peter
Coley Annie
Colleges and universities, formation of black
Collier, Holt
Colombia
Colonization, of slaves and free blacks
Colored Methodist Episcopal Church
Colson, Arthur
Colyer, Vincent
Communities, black; problems with; steps to promote interests of
Confederate cause, blacks aiding; reasons for
Confederate States of America; debate on arming African Americans; formation of
Confiscation Acts
Congressmen. See Politicians
Conservatives: black(see also Democrats); increasing power in 1870s, 228
Contraband Relief Association
Contrabands. See also Confederate cause, blacks aiding
Conway, Thomas W.
Cook, Jerry
Cooke, Major
Cooley, Rossa
Cooper, Charlie
Cooper, Frisby
Cornell, Hiram
Corporal punishment
Courtship
Cox, Elijah
Crane, Mary
Crawford, Kate
Crawford, Samuel F.
Crittenden, John J.
Curtis, Mattie
Daffin, Sallie
Dallas, Moses
Dantzler, Juda
Daughters of Zion
Davenport, Carey
Davenport, Charlie
Davidson, W. M.
Davis, Jefferson; blacks’ attitude toward; military policies and orders
Davis, Lizzie
Davis, Tob
Davis, William Roscoe
Davison, Eli
Davison, Elige
Dawkins, Jake
Dawson, Mollie
Day, Annie
Day, Madison
Debro, Sarah
DeGrasse, John V.
Delany, Martin R.
DeLarge, Robert C.
Democrats, black; violence between black Republicans and. See also Politicians
Deportation. See also Colonization
Depression of
Desertion, among black troops
Deveaux
Dickson, Amanda
Dickson, David
Dillard, General
Discrimination, struggle against
Divorce. See also Marriage(s), and separation
Dixon, Sally
Dockworkers
Dodson, Jack
Domestic violence
Donald, David H.
Doolin-Mason, Lena
Dorsey, Decatur
Dorsey, Nelson
Douglass, Frederick; and blacks in military; education; and emancipation; on Lincoln; on Northern benevolent societies
Douglass, H. Ford
Downing, George
Drago, Edmund
Dred Scott Decision
Drumgold, Kate
Drunkenness, among black troops
DuBois, W. E. B.
Dumas, F. E.
Duncan, Clara
Dunn, Lucy
Dunn, Oscar
Durham, Tempie
Easley, Elizabeth
Eaton, John
Economic independence; efforts to achieve; land ownership and
Education, black; and efforts to free blacks; financing; formation of black colleges and universities; motivations for obtaining; parental concerns regarding; punishment for obtaining; sacrifices made for; societies/organizations to promote; Southern white opposition to; white children teaching black children. See also Schools
Edwards, Ann
Edward Waters College
Elder, Larry
Eldridge, J. E.
Ellington, Betty Ann
Ellington, Harry
Elliott, Robert Brown
Ellis, William
Elmore, Grace
Else, Amy
Emancipation: announcement of news of; and arming of slaves; joy over newfound status; legislative efforts toward(see also Confiscation Acts); Lincoln’s scheme for; slaves staying versus leaving following. See also Lincoln, Abraham, and black freedom
Emancipation amendment. See Thirteenth Amendment
Emancipation celebrations; throughout Reconstruction period
Emancipation Proclamation; and Border states; response to; significance; and Union military
Emigrationist movements. See also Colonization; Migration
Employment; freedmen’s efforts to secure
Enlisting in military, blacks; blacks’ reasons for; Confederate enlistment bill of 1865, 75; efforts to stop; forced; reasons for opposition to; traumatic experience of; violence done to blacks for. See also Confiscation Acts
Enlistment Act of
Episcopal Church
Epps, Tom
Equal Rights League
Erwing, Cynthia
Espionage
Everett, Martha
Families, black; of enlistees; forced separations; quest to free, from white control; reunion with lost ones; steps to promote interest of; unknowing marriage between members
Family: attachment and devotion to; as sacred institution
Family servants
Fayetteville State College
Fee, John G.
Felder, Sarah
Field slaves
Fields, Jackson
Fields, Sarah
Fifteenth Amendment; struggle for
Fillmore, Millard
Fisk Jubilee Singers
Fisk University
Fitzgerald, Robert
Fleming, George
Floyd, Sylvia
Ford, Laura
Forrest, Nathan Bedford
Fort Clark
Forten, Charlotte
Forten, Lottie
Fort Jackson
Fort Morgan
Fort Pillow massacre
of
Fortress Monroe
Fort Sumter
Foster, Abby Kelley
Foster, Sarah Jane
Foster, Stephen
Fourteenth Amendment
Fowler, Mat
Fox, Colonel
Frankel, Noralee
Franklin, Richard
Franks, Dora
Fraser, Bella
Frazier, Julia
Freedmen: black efforts to alleviate sufferings of; postwar problems facing; reasons for remaining in South; sent back to plantations
Freedmen and Soldiers Relief Association of Washington
Freedmen’s Bureau; and education
Freedmen’s Savings Bank
Freeman, David
Freeman, Rose
Frémont, John C.
Fry David
Fugitive Slave Law
Fuller, Nat
Gaines, Wesley
Gambling, among black troops
Ganaway, Charles
Gardner, James
Garnet, Henry Highland
Garrison, William Lloyd
Gender roles
Georgia Educational Association
Gibbs, Jonathan C.
Gibbs, Oscar
Gibson, Julia
Gill, Andrew Jackson
Gill, James
Gilmore, Brawley
Gladdy, Mary
Glatthaar, Joseph
Gleaves, Richard
Glover, Martha
Goaldsby, Henry
Gooch, Henrietta
Gooding, James Henry
Gould, John
Government assistance
Graham, Anna
Grainer, George
Grant, Aaron
Grant, Austin
Grant, Susan
Grant, Ulysses S.
Greeley, Horace
Green, Ashbury
Green, Marie Aurelia
Green, Virginia C.
Greenwall, Henry
Gregg, J. Irvin
Gregory, John
Grey, Maria
Grey, Philip
Grey, Willie Ann
Griffin, Madison
Griffing, Josephine
Grimball, John Berkeley
Grimké, Francis
Gurney, William
Haiti
Hale, Edward Everett
Hall, Captain
Hall, James Henry
Hall, Prince
Hamelton, Warren
Hamlin, Ken
Hampton, Wade
Hampton Institute
Hanon, George Buck
Harding, Mr.
Harper, Frances Ellen Watkins
Harper, Pierce
Harris, Blanche
Harris, David