robbers and bandits artwork depicting, 193
and de Goes, 231
and diplomatic delegations, 225
and Dunhuang caves, 188
and Sogdian traders, 103
use of Silk Road routes, 238
and Xuanzang’s travels, 113, 192, 240
See also raiding
rock crystal, 155
Roman Empire
and diplomatic envoys, 18
and Dunhuang documents, 197
intermittent contact with China, 19–21
and Kroraina Kingdom, 54
Roman coins in China, 9, 20, color plate 4A
and Shanpula graveyard
artifacts, 202
and silk production, 19
and Turfan, 97
Rong Xinjiang, 176, 177, 228
Rouran confederacy, 55, 75, 94
Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 209
royal orders. See edicts
royal silk, 49
rubies, 156
Ruins of Desert Cathay (Stein), 173
Rulers of the Heavens, 169
Russia, 167, 233
Rustam (Stein’s assistant), 45, 125
sabao headmen
An Jia, 144, 145, color plate 14
bureaucratic ranking of, 274n11
etymology of, 265n58, 277n58
Faxian on, 160
and migrant populations, 239
Shi Wirkak, 146
and Sogdian religious
practices, 118
and Zoroastrian religious
practices, 98
Samarkand, 115
and the Afrasiab murals, 125, 128, 129, 138–39
and diplomatic envoys, 127–29, 128, 241
and the horse trade, 81
and Iranian merchants, 3
languages of, 56–57
and migrant populations, 239
and the Mount Mugh letters, 129–39
Muslim conquest of, 22
and the Panjikent excavations, 121–26, 124, 134–35, 138–39
and popular perceptions of the Silk Road, 6
and private mail, 112
and Silk Road routes, 10
and Sogdian culture, 4–5, 31, 43, 113–20, 121
and Turfan, 83, 94, 98
and Xuanzang’s travels, 113–16, 121
Sängim, 74
Sanskrit
and birch bark documents, 10
and Buddhism, 47, 56
and Dunhuang cave documents, 174, 181, 187, 240–41
and Khotanese, 24, 203, 210, 211, 220
and Kumarajiva, 56–57, 69–70
and languages of Kroraina Kingdom, 44
The Mahabharata (Sanskrit epic), 52
and Niya documents, 51–52
and Stein, 12, 174
and Tibetans, 184–85
and Tocharian, 72
and Turfan, 85
word for “China,” 19
and Yijing’s travels, 164
sapphires, 156
Sarvastivadin school of Buddhism, 52, 66
Sasanian Empire
coins of, 20, 94–96, 122–23, 156, color plate 4B
refugees from Islamic conquest, 149
and Sogdian culture, 120
and Turfan, 98
Satuq Bughra Khan, 226, 234, color plate 16A
scale fees, 99–102, 100–102
scribes, 216–17, 220
The Scripture of the Benevolent Kings (Buddhist text), 90
sculptures, 212
seashells, 13
sea travel, 160–65, 162–63
Semireche, 196
Serindia (Stein), 35, 176
shamanism, 229
Shamasena, 52
Shan, Kingdom of, 41
Shandong Peninsula, 161–64
Shang dynasty, 13, 235–36
Shanpula, 199, 201, 204
Shanshan Kingdom, 26, 28–29, 40, 42, 55. See also Kroraina Kingdom
Shatial site, 31
Shi Le, 117
Shi Pantuo, 85
Shi Randian, 104
Shiva, 122
Shi Wirkak, 143, 146, 147
shizhong, 44
Shouchang, 185
Sidaka, 215–16
Siddhabhadra, 211
Sieg, Emil, 70–73, 211
Siegling, Wilhelm, 70–73, 211
silk
and Dandan Uiliq painting, 213
and diplomatic envoys, 225–26
and Kroraina Kingdom, 38–40, 40, 42–43, 49–51
monetary value of, 96, 103, 192–93, 225–26, color plate 5A
production of, 19–20 “royal silk,” 49
and Samarkand, 138
and the Sogdian Ancient Letters, 119
spread of silk technology, 238
and the Tang dynasty, 184
and Turfan, 91
Silk Road, routes of, color plate 2–3
invention of the term, 6–8
of Kucha region, 58–59
main Eurasian routes, 6–7
and pilgrimages to India, 162–63
popular perceptions of, 6–10
of Taklamakan desert, 6, 22–23
of Turfan region, 86–87
The Silk Road (Hedin), 8
Silla, 165
silver
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 153, 155
ingots, 217
tax biscuits, 152, 157
See also silver under coins entry
Sims-Williams, Nicholas, 116
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor, 210
slavery, 3, 45, 48, 104, 183–84, 224
Small Goose Pagoda, 151
Sogdians and Sogdiana, 115
and the Afrasiab murals, 125, 128, 129, 138–39, color plate 11B
and An Jia’s tomb, color plate 14
and the An Lushan rebellion, 157–58
and anti-foreign sentiment, 159–60
and Chang’an, 103, 143–47, 145, 147, 149–50, 157–59
and Christianity, 109
and cultural exchange, 4–5
and diplomatic envoys, 17
and Dunhuang cave
documents, 181, 182, 195–96, 241
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 154–55, 155
and the horse trade, 81
and Karakorum Highway
inscriptions, 31
and Khotanese, 210
and Kumarajiva, 56
languages of, 56, 71–72, 113
and Loulan documents, 43
and migrant populations, 22–23, 239
and the Mount Mugh letters, 129–39
and the Panjikent excavations, 121–26, 124, 134–35, 138–39
and Samarkand, 4–5, 31, 43, 113–20, 121
Sogdian Ancient Letters, 116–20, 120–21, 138, 160, 173, 239
and travels to India, 164–65
and Turfan, 21, 83, 85–86, 91, 98–99
and Xuanzang’s travels, 113–16
Song dynasty, 94, 192, 222
Soviet Union, 130
Sri Lanka, 156, 160, 161
statues, 204–5, 206
Steel Road, 113
Stein, Aurel
and Astana graveyard site, 84
and Dandan Uiliq, 217–18
and the Dunhuang caves, 167–77, 172, 180–81, 196–97
funding for expeditions, 212
and itinerant traders, 237–38
and Khotan, 176–77, 207, 209, 212
and Kroraina Kingdom sites, 12–13, 25–27, 30, 32–38, 42–43, 45–47, 53–54
and Rawak, 204–5, 205, 206
and the Sogdian Ancient Letters, 116
and Turfan, 93, 95
and Xinjiang province, 233
on Xuanzang’s travels, 85
steles, 149, 150
stupas
of Karakorum Highway, 30, 31
at Kizil caves, 61–62, 62
at Niya, 33–35, 52–54, 53, 2
05, color plate 6
at Rawak, 204–6, 205, 207
subsistence economy, 43, 79, 197, 224, 237
Sufism, 232–34
Sui dynasty, 79, 85, 141, 147, 168–69
Sumatra, 164
Supis, 49, 51, 54
Suvarnadeva, 77
Suzong, 107–8
Syrians, 231
Taizong, Tang-dynasty Emperor, 125, 148, 151, 211
Tajikistan, 130
Taklamakan Desert
and Dandan Uiliq, 212
and de Goes’ caravan, 232
and distribution of languages, 72, 75
glacial rivers of, 58
and Han dynasty trade, 18
and Hedin’s explorations, 11–12, 242, color plate 10
and Kroraina Kingdom, 27, 33, 55
and the Mongol Empire, 229
and oasis towns, 8
and Silk Road routes, 6, 9–10, 22–23
and Turfan, 82
withdrawal of Chinese military, 160
Tamerlane, 231
Tamjaka, 47
Tamluk, 160, 164
Tang Code, 92, 96, 148, 183–84
Tang dynasty
and art trade, 21
and Central Asian economy, 107
and Chang’an, 141–43, 147–59, 166
and contracts, 103–4, 192–94
and Dunhuang cave
documents, 184–85, 186–88
and Gaochang City, 105
and Khotan, 79, 211, 226
and Kucha, 79–82, 211
military expenditures, 8
monetary system, 184
and moneylending, 151–52
and Samarkand, 137
and Sogdiana, 113, 116, 129
“Tang Barbie,” color plate 8
and taxation, 184, 187, 214–16
and trade disputes, 149
and Turfan, 21, 82, 85, 88–89, 91–92, 94, 96–98, 103–8, 105, 111, 211
and volume of Silk Road trade, 237
and Zhang-family rule at Dunhuang, 190
Tanguts, 190–91, 228
Tang Zhangru, 94
Tarim River, 58, 60
Tarxun, 135
taxation
and the An Lushan rebellion, 157
cloth as payment, 106–7
and coins, 95, 97
and Dandan Uiliq, 214–17
and Kroraina Kingdom, 48
and Kucha, 77
and Loulan documents, 43
and payments to soldiers, 215
and the Tang dynasty, 184, 187, 214–16
tax biscuits, 152, 157
tax documents as evidence, 238
and Turfan, 91–92, 96, 99–102, 100–102, 108
tea, 233
technology
availability of Dunhuang
documents, 176
and locating sites, 212
and migrant populations, 4, 239
paper-making technology, 137–39, 238
silk technology, 238
technological transfer, 137–39
terra-cotta soldiers, 141
textiles
cotton, 38, 39, 138, 195
and the Dunhuang economy, 195
imported goods, 233
and Kroraina Kingdom, 38, 39, 40, 41–43, 49–51
of Mongols, 231
nomadic themes in, 203
Shanpula burial garb, 204
and the Sogdians, 119
and the Tang monetary system, 184
tax cloth, 106–7
and Turfan markets, 106–7
See also silk
Thailand, 156
Theodosius II, 97
Thierry, François, 76
Thousand Buddha (Quianfodong) site, 172
The Thousand-Character Classic. 180
Three Realms Monastery, Dunhuang, 178–79, 181, 222
Tianshan Mountains, 113–14
Tibet and Tibetan Empire
and the An Lushan rebellion, 184–85, 212
and Buddhist pilgrimages, 221
challenge to Tang dynasty, 80, 107, 108, 157
collapse of, 216
and diplomatic envoys, 192
and Dunhuang cave
documents, 169, 185–87
and Khotan, 212
and the Sogdian Ancient Letters, 119
Tibetan language, 180–81, 186–87, 211, 240–41
Times of London, 8
Timur the Lame, 231
Tocharian language, 13, 44, 71–74
Tocharoi people, 71, 72
Tokmak, 114, 115
Tongzhou, Shaanxi, 144
topazes, 155–56
tortoiseshell, 20, 165
tourism
and Astana graveyard, 93, 172
and desert ruins, 10
and Jiaohe ruins, 91
and Khotan, 199, 233
and the Kizil caves, 57–58
and mazar shrines, 234, color plate 16A, color plate 16B
and Melikawat ruins, 207
Tragbal Pass, 27
transformation texts, 76–77, 179, 188
translations, 214
travel passes (guosuo)
and diplomatic envoys, 17
of Kucha, 57, 77–80, 78, 82
at Niya, 36–37
and sea travel, 165
as source of evidence, 238
and supervision of trade, 237
and Turfan, 89, 103–4
tribute, 231
Trinkler, Emil, 212
Trombert, Éric, 82, 184
Turco-Sogdian, 195–96
Turdi, 212
Turfan
and Astana graveyard site, 84, 86–87, 93–99, 151
burial practices of, 92–94, 98–99
and caravan trade, 88, 103–7, 232
climate of, 11, 21, 92–93
coinage of, 99, 100–102, 103–7, 111
coins of, color plate 4B
and diplomatic envoys, 192
foods of, 83
and Gaochang city, 105
languages of, 72, 74–75
religions of, 182, 228, 231
and Sogdians, 21, 83, 85–86, 91, 98–99