38 On Shcherbakov, see Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 119 and passim; Kuromiya, “Jews,” 523, 525; and Zubok, Empire, 7.
39 On the Victory Day parade, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 193. On Etinger, see Brent, Plot, 11. See also Lustiger, Stalin, 213. Stalin’s concern with medical terrorism dated back to at least 1930; see Prystaiko, Sprava, 49.
40 On Karpai, see Brent, Plot, 296.
41 Lukes, “New Evidence,” 165.
42 Ibid., 178-180; Lustiger, Stalin, 264.
43 For the quotation and the proportion (eleven out of fourteen defendants of Jewish origin), see Proces z vedením, 44-47, at 47. On the denunciations, see Margolius Kovály, Cruel Star, 139.
44 For Slánský’s confession, see Proces z vedením, 66, 70, 72. For the death penalty and the hangman, see Lukes, “New Evidence,” 160, 185. On Margolius, see Margolius Kovály, Cruel Star, 141.
45 On Poland, see Paczkowski, Trzy twarze, 162.
46 Quotation: Brent, Plot, 250.
47 Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 264; Brent, Plot, 267. On the dance, see Service, Stalin, 580.
48 On Mikhoels as Lear, see Veidlinger, Yiddish Theater.
49 For “every Jew . . . ,” see Rubenstein, Pogrom, 62. For “their nation had been saved . . . ,” see Brown, Rise and Fall, 220.
50 Quotations: Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 290. See also Lustiger, Stalin, 250.
51 On Karpai, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 466; and Brent, Plot, 296.
52 On the drafting and redrafting, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm , 470-478. On Grossman, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 196. See also Luks, “Brüche,” 47, The Grossman quotation is from Life and Fate at 398.
53 On Ehrenburg, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 197.
54 For the rumors, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 202. For the number of doctors, see Luks, “Brüche,” 42.
55 Khlevniuk, “Stalin as dictator,” 110, 118. On Stalin’s nonappearance at factories, farms, and government offices after the Second World War, see Service, Stalin, 539.
56 On Stalin’s security chiefs, see Brent, Plot, 258.
57 Stalin ordered beatings on 13 November; see Brent, Plot, 224. On the trial, see Lustiger, Stalin, 250.
58 For details on the “anti-Zionist campaign” of 1968, see Stola, Kampania antysyjonistyczna ; and Paczkowski, Pół wieku.
59 Rozenbaum, “March Events,” 68.
60 On the earlier Soviet practice, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 160.
61 Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 19, 31. On the “fifth column, ” see Rozenbaum, “1968,” 70.
62 Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 20.
63 For the figure of 2,591 people arrested, see Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 17. For the Gdańsk railway station, see Eisler, “1968,” 60.
64 See Judt, Postwar, 422-483; and Simons, Eastern Europe.
65 Brown, Rise and Fall, 396.
CONCLUSION: HUMANITY
1 Compare Moyn, “In the Aftermath.” The interpretations here arise from arguments that are documented in the chapters; the annotation is therefore limited.
2 Perhaps a million people died in the German camps (as opposed to the death facilities and shooting and starvation sites). See Orth, System.
3 Compare Keegan, Face of Battle, 55; and Gerlach and Werth, “State Violence,” 133.
4 Most of the remainder of those who starved were in Kazakhstan. I am counting the deaths in Ukraine as intended, and those in Kazakhstan as foreseeable. Future research might change the estimation of intentionality.
5 This and the below quotation follow Robert Chandler’s 2010 translation of Everything Flows, unpublished as I write. See also Life and Fate at 29.
6 A sustained discussion of the moral economy of land and murder is Kiernan, Blood and Soil.
7 Mao’s China exceeded Hitler’s Germany in the famine of 1958-1960, which killed some thirty million people.
8 For “belligerent complicity,” see Furet, Fascism and Communism, 2. Compare Edele, “States,” 348. Hitler quotation: Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 228.
9 Todorov, Mémoire du mal, 90.
10 Milgram, “Behavior Study,” still repays reading.
11 Kołakowski, Main Currents, 43.
12 On international bystanding, see Power, Problem.
13 Fest, Das Gesicht, 108, 162.
14 As Harold James notes, theories of violent modernization actually fare badly in purely economic terms; see Europe Reborn, 26. Buber-Neumann quotation: Under Two Dictators, 35.
15 The most significant German crime in Soviet Russia was the deliberate starvation of Leningrad, in which about a million people died. The Germans killed a relatively small number of Jews in Soviet Russia, perhaps sixty thousand. They also killed at least a million prisoners of war from Soviet Russia in the Dulags and the Stalags. These people are usually reckoned as military losses in Soviet and Russian estimates; since I am counting them as victims of a deliberate killing policy, I am increasing the estimate of 1.8 million in Filimoshin, “Ob itogakh,” 124. I believe that the Russian estimate for deaths at Leningrad is too low by about four hundred thousand people, so I add that as well. If Boris Sokolov is right, and Soviet military losses were far higher than the conventional estimates, then most of the people in the higher estimates were soldiers. If Ellman and Maksudov are right, and Soviet military losses were in fact lower, then most of these people were civilians: often civilians not under German occupation. See Sokolov, “How to Count,” 451-457; and Ellman, “Soviet Deaths,” 674-680.
16 On the deaths of 516,841 Gulag inmates, see Zemskov, “Smertnost’,” 176. On the four million Soviet citizens in the Gulag (including the special settlements), see Khlevniuk, Gulag, 307.
17 Brandon and Lower estimate 5.5-7 million total losses in Soviet Ukraine during the war; see “Introduction,” 11.
18 For an introduction to the memory culture, see Goujon, “Memorial.”
19 Here as elsewhere in the Conclusion, discussions of numbers are documented in the chapters.
20 Janion, Do Europy. On Berman, see Gniazdowski, “‘Ustalić liczbę.”
INDEX
AB Aktion (Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion, Extraordinary Pacification Action)
Abakumov, Viktor
Adamczyk, Wiesław
Aged. See Elderly
Aginskaia, Perla
Akhmatova, Anna
Allilueva, Svetlana
Angielczyk, Czesława
Anielewicz, Mordechai
Anschluss
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936)
Anti-Semitism
Belarus and
in Britain
in Czechoslovakia
Hitler, Adolf and
National Socialism and
in Poland
Soviet Union and
Stalin, Joseph and
in United States
Arajs, Viktor
Archangelsk, Soviet Union
Arendt, Hannah
Armenians
Aronson, Stanisław
Aryanization
Auschwitz
Austria
Babi Yar
Babushkina, Evgenia
Bach-Zelewski, Erich von dem
Backe, Herbert
Baltic States See also Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia
Balts
See also Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians
Balytskyi, Vsevolod
BBC. See British Broadcasting Corporation
Bełżec
Bechtolsheim, Gustav von
Belarus
anti-Semitism in
Final Solution and
Final Solution in
German-Soviet war (1941-1945) and
Great Terror of 1937-1938 and
Hitler, Adolf and
Holocaust and
Jews, murder of in
Jews in
Lenin, Vladimir and
Minsk
nationalism and
partisan warfare in
; Polish Jews in
Soviet prisoners of war and
Stalin, Joseph and
Belarusians
murder of
Belgium
Belozovskaia, Iza
Belsen
Beneš, Edvard
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp
Berger, Oskar
Bergman, Bluma
Beria, Lavrenty
Berman, Boris
Berman, Jakub
Bielski, Tuvia
Bierut, Bolesław
Birkenau
See also Auschwitz
Black Book of Soviet Jewry
Blokhin, Vasily
Blum, Léon
Bolshevik Revolution (1917)
Bolshevism, Bolsheviks
Borowski, Tadeusz
Britain. See Great Britain
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
The Brothers Karamazov (Dostoevsky)
Brzeziński, Mieczysław
Buber-Neumann, Margarete
Buchenwald concentration camp
Bukharin, Nikolai
Bulgaria
Bulgarians
First World War and
Cannibalism
Capitalism
Caucasus
Cedrowski, Izydor
Central Powers
Chamberlain, Neville
Chełmno
Cheka
Children
Final Solution and
Great Terror of 1937 and 1938 and
Poland, German invasion of and
Soviet concentration camps and
Soviet famines and
China
Churchill, Winston
Circus (film)
Cold War
Collectivization
failure of
industrialization and
legal basis for
socialism and
Soviet famines and
Stalin, Joseph and
Cominform (Communist Informational Bureau)
Communism
fascism and
Hitler, Adolf and
Holocaust and
Home Army (Poland) and
industrialization and
Jews and
National Socialism and
Poland and
Tito-Stalin split and
Communist International
Concentration Camp Warsaw
Congress of Victors (1934)
Cosmopolitanism
Crabwalk (Grass)
Cracow, Poland
Crimea
Croatia
Cukierman, Icchak
Czapski, Józef
Czechoslovakia
Czechs
Czerniaków, Adam
Dąbal, Tomasz
Dachau concentration camp
Daladier, Edouard
Darkness at Noon (Koestler)
Darwinism
Death factories
Auschwitz
Bełżec
Chełmno
concentration camps vs.
“euthanasia” program and
liberation of
Polish Jews and
Polish Jews executed in
Sobibór
Soviet prisoners of war and
Treblinka
Defoe, Daniel
Democracy
Denmark
Der Nister
Dirlewanger, Oskar
Dirlewanger Brigade
Dmowski, Roman
Dnipropretrovsk, Ukraine
Donetsk, Ukraine. See Stalino, Ukraine
Dorfmann, Ruth
Dostoevsky, Fyodor
Dowbor, Janina
Dubček, Aleksandr
Dulles, Allen
Dzierżyński, Feliks
East Germany (German Democratic Republic)
Eberl, Irmfried
Edelman, Marek
Ehrenburg, Ilya
Eichmann, Adolf
Einsatzgruppen
Jews and
Political enemies and
Einsatzkommandos
Eizenshtayn, Sofia
Elderly
Engels, Friedrich
Enlightenment
Entente Powers
Estonia
ethnic cleansing of
Final Solution in
German-Soviet war (1941-1945) and
Great Terror of 1937 and 1938 in
Soviet occupation and annexation of
Ethnic cleansing
of Germans
in Latvia
in Lithuania
in Poland
in Soviet Union
Stalin, Joseph and
Etinger, Yakov
European Union
Everything Flows (Grossman)
Evian Conference (1938)
The Family Mashber (Der Nister)
Fascism, fascists
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
Fefer, Itzik
Field, Noel and Hermann
Final Solution
in Belarus
children and
death factories and
deportation and
enslavement and
in Estonia
“euthanasia” program and
final version of
German-Soviet war (1941-1945) and
Hitler, Adolf and
in Hungary
Hunger Plan and
Jews, elimination of and
Large Action (1942) and
in Latvia
Lublin plan of
Madagascar plan of
Nazi justification for
partisan warfare and
Poland and
reformulating
in Romania
Soviet plan of
Stalin, Joseph and
in Ukraine
Wehrmacht and
women and
Finland
First World War
Fischer, Ludwig
Fiterson, Sima
Five-Year Plan
Flak, Jadwiga
Flak, Marian
Flossenberg concentration camp
For a Just Cause (Grossman)
Four-Year Plan Authority
France
Czechoslovakia, annexation of and
First World War and
German invasion of
Jewish deportation from
Poland, German invasion of and
Second World War and
Versailles Treaty (1919) and
Franco, Francisco
Frank, Hans
Franz, Kurt
Free Masons
French Revolution
Frenkel, Paweł
Furet, François
Gandhi, Mohandas
Garden of Eden
Gassing
Gauleiters
Gęborski, Czesław
Geibel, Paul
Geller, Eliezer
General Commissariat White Ruthenia
See also Belarus
General Government
Generalplan Ost
Gerassimova, Rosa
German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
German Empire
defeat of
German Jews
deportation
Holocaust and
murder of
Germans
deportation of
ethnic cleansing of
First World War and
Soviet famines and
superiority of
German-Soviet war (1941-1945)
Belarus and
Civilians and
Final Solution and
Generalplan Ost and
Hitler, Adolf and
Hunger Plan and
Japan and
Jewish resistance and
Leningrad, seige of and
“lightning victory” in
Moscow, Soviet Union and
National Socialism and
Operation Bagration and
partisan warfare and
Polish resistance and
Red Army and
Soviet power and
Soviet prisoners of war and
Stalin, Joseph and
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and
Wehrmacht and
Germany
Anschluss and
Austria, annexation of by
British problem and
concentration camps in
Czechoslovakia, annexation of by
economy of
First World War and
gas chambers in
Great Terror of 1937 and 1938 and
Japanese alliance with
Jews, murder of in
killing fields in
Poland, invasion of by
Poland, occupation of by
Rapallo, Treaty of and
socialism in
Soviet alliance with
Soviet occupation of
Soviet Union, encirclement of and
Soviet war (1941-1945) with
starvation campaign of 1941 and
starvation zones in
Treaty on Borders and Friendship (1939) and
Gestapo
Ghettos
Łódź, Poland
death factories and
Lublin, Poland
Minsk, Belarus
Polish Jews in
Riga, Latvia
Slutsk, Belarus
Warsaw, Poland
Glińska, Irena, Janina and Serafina
Globocnik, Odilo
Goebbels, Joseph
Goglidze, S. A.
Gold, Artur
Goloshchekin, Filip
Gomułka, Władysław
Gorbachev, Mikhail
Gorbman, Ekaterina
Göring, Hermann
Gottberg, Curt von
Gottwald, Klement
Graniewicz, Bazylii
Graniewicz, Kolya
Grass, Günter
Great Britain
anti-Semitism in
concentration camps, liberation of by
Czechoslovakia, annexation of and
First World War and
Jews and
Poland, German invasion of and
Poland and
Second World War and
socialism in
Great Depression
Great Terror of 1937-1938
in Belarus
Belarus and
casualties of
children and
class operations of
end of
family, destruction of and
Germany and
Gulag and
Hitler, Adolf and
Japan and
Jews and
kulak operation of
Latvian operation of
Leningrad and
national operations of
NKVD (Soviet secret police) and
NKVD and