as polygenic illness, 276, 300
risk of developing, 461
sexual behavior links to, 442–43
sporadic form of, 442–44, 446, 446n
triggers required with, 447
twin studies of, 298–300, 442, 445n
Schrödinger, Erwin, 131, 132, 135, 140, 142, 146, 147, 216
Science (journal), 228, 300, 315, 316, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378, 381, 469, 472, 478
Scientific Registry of Serious Hereditary and Congenital Illnesses (Germany), 122–23
screening tests. See genetic screening; prenatal screening
Second Reform Act of 1867, 75
Segal, Nancy, 379
selective abortion, 269, 270, 273–74
selective breeding
cattle ranchers’ use of, 36
early public support for, 75–76
Galton’s support for, 64, 73, 76
public support for, 75
Wells’s questioning of, 74
sequencing. See gene sequencing
severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), 423
sex
evolutionary purpose of, 360n
use of term, 356
sex chromosomes. See also X chromosome; Y chromosome
coining of phrase, 358
early research on, 9, 358–59
sex determination
ancient Greek beliefs on, 356–57
belief in multiple environmental inputs in, 357
genes and, 355–56, 357
mutation in Swyer syndrome and, 361–63
XY system with chromosomes and, 358–59, 360n
sexual behavior
genetic determinants of, 372, 378
schizophrenia linked to, 442–43
twin studies of, 374
sexual orientation
Hamer’s interest in gay gene and, 372–73, 375, 377
twin study on genetics of, 373, 375–76
sexual reassignment, 363–67
sexual reproduction, use of term, 360n
Shannon, James, 275
Shapiro, Lucy, 310
Sharp, Phillip, 219, 307
Shaw, George Bernard, 73, 114
Shockley, William, 274, 276
shock therapy, for agricultural production, 126–27, 406
shotgun genome-sequencing technique, 310, 311, 312, 316, 319
sickle-cell anemia, 169–73
discovery of genetic basis for, 170–72
early theories of, 169–70
flow of biological information in, 172–73
gene mapping of, 291
gene regulation in, 184
genetic links in, 260, 278, 288, 342, 350, 455
inheritance research on, 280n
mutation found in, 288
racial and ethnic subpopulations with, 342, 350
sickle-cell gene, in humans, 280n
Siemens, Hermann Werner, 128–29
Simian virus 40 (SV40)
Berg’s insertion of foreign gene into, 204–05, 205n
concerns about safety of, 227
description of, 203–04
estimation of risk involved in using, 210
gene-modified, for creating composite embryos, 418, 420
Simons Simplex Collection, 444n
sinfulness, in Christian inheritance theory, 25
Singer, Maxine, 230, 231
single-gene (monogenic) diseases
classification of, 260–62
number of, 482
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) in, 457
Sinsheimer, Robert, 274, 292
skn-1 gene, in worms, 389n
Skolnick, Mark, 278, 279, 281
slavery
cultural rifts between whites and African-Americans and, 348
eugenics movement, 82n
smell, genes for, 323, 325
Smith, Hamilton, 309, 310, 318
Smith, John Maynard, 397–98
social engineering, 459, 460–61
socialism, 117, 131
somatostatin, 241–42, 243, 245, 247, 251
Sontag, Susan, 450
Soviet Union
genetic theories not accepted in, 125–26, 127
shock therapy of plants for agricultural production in, 126–27, 406
Spanish flu, 112
Spark, The (newspaper), 117
Spearman, Charles, 344
speciation, 35, 38, 109
Spencer, Herbert, 37, 74
sperm
Aristotle’s inheritance theory on, 24, 27, 43
Darwin’s pangenesis theory on, 57
gene-modified ES cells producing, 420
gene therapy on reproductive cells introduced into, 464–65
germ-line gene therapy with, 465, 467, 469, 474
homunculus concept and, 25–26
Hongerwinter memory’s marking of, 405–06
Mendel on inheritance of traits in, 51–52
NIH prohibition on transmitting genome modifications into, 476
preformation and, 25
Pythagoras’s inheritance theory on, 21–22, 27, 42
virus genes in composite embryos using, 418
Weismann on hereditary information in, 57–58
sperm banks, 274, 276
spermism
Aristotle’s rejection of, 23
Pythagoras’s theory of, 21–22, 24
Spider-Man (comic-book series), 266
sporadic schizophrenia, 442–44, 446, 446n
SRY gene, in humans, 362, 363, 367–68, 481, 503
starvation, Hongerwinter genetic memory of, 394, 405–06
Steele, Mark, 267
stem cells. See also embryonic stem cells (ES cells)
ADA gene insertion into, for ADA deficiency, 424–25, 491
cell regeneration using, 419
embryonic stem cells derived from, 467–68
human genome changes using, 489
radiation-induced changes to, 469–70
reversing cellular memory of, 404–05
sperm and eggs derived from, 475, 478
sterilization, 78–85
Buck case and, 79–82, 84, 304, 502
eugenics and support for, 74, 75–77
feebleminded diagnosis and, 77, 78–79, 80, 81, 116, 120
Galton’s struggle with use of, 76
inherited traits as justification for, 129
Nazi eugenics programs using, 120, 121–22, 123, 124, 125, 129
Wells’s support for, 74, 75
Sterilization Law (Germany), 121, 124
Sterling, Jane, 440–41, 453
Stevens, Nettie, 357–59
background and training of, 357–58
theory of sex determination of, 37, 358–59
Stevens, Wallace, 10, 265
Stoddard, Lothrop, 122
stress, 5HTTLRP gene associated with, 459, 460
Stringer, Christopher, 339
Strong African American Families project (SAAF), 459–60
Sturtevant, Alfred, 94, 96–97, 117, 183
subatomic physics, 140
Sulston, John, 157
clone-by-clone assembly approach and, 311
gene-by-gene approach and, 294
gene patent proposals and, 308
on Human Genome Project philosophy, 492
worm genome sequencing by, 191, 192–93, 194, 303, 313, 320
Sun Yat-sen University, China, 478
survival of the fittest
Darwin on, 37, 45
de Vries on mutants in, 61
environmental factors affecting, 106, 108
Galton on, 64
genetic selection using, 85
Spencer’s coining of phrase, 74
Sutton, Walter, 92–93
Swammerdam, Jan, 26
Swanson, Robert, 238–39, 241–42, 243, 244, 251, 252
Swyer, Gerald, 361
Swyer syndrome, 361–63, 368
synaptic pruning, 445n
Szilard, Leo, 232, 233
Szostak, Jack, 411–12
TALEN enzyme, 472n
Tarzan of the Apes (Burroughs), 83
Tatum, Edward, 161–63, 314
taxonomy, 31
of Darwin’s preoccupation with, 34–35
Linnaeus’s approach to, 20
Mendel’s work with, 19
Tay-Sachs disease, 316
genetic link in, 264, 342, 350
genetic screening for, 13, 269, 291, 455, 458
possible intentional cut to reverse action of, 471
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) of, 457, 464
T cell receptor
cloning of, 224
function of, 222–23
T cells
gene-modified, in ADA deficiency treatment, 425–27, 428
immune system function of, 222, 423
telomeres, 325
Temin, Howard, 223
temperament, genetically linked, in Down syndrome, 269, 384
temperature
gene actualization triggered by, 263
gene variations related to, 106, 107, 108
Tempest, The (Shakespeare), 390
Terman, Lewis, 344
testosterone, to reverse sexual reassignment, 365
testosterone receptor, 378
thalassemia, 291, 424n
Thomson, James, 467–69
Thurstone, Louis, 345
thymine, 135, 156
Tie Club, 164, 165
Time Machine, The (Wells), 74
Tishkoff, Sarah, 338
Toba, Indonesia, volcano, 340
“Toba Tek Singh” (Manto), 4
Tomkins, Gordon, 198
Topol, Eric, 438, 452
tortoiseshell cats, inheritance in, 400
Touched with Fire (Jamison), 448
Toxodon, 33
transcription
generation of an RNA copy using, 166–67
gene regulation with, 182
transformation
Avery’s confirmation of Griffith’s research on, 133, 136–37
definition of, 112
difficulties in studying, 111–12
discovery of, 112, 159
genetic information exchanged during, 112, 136
Griffith’s pneumococcus variant research involving, 112–14, 131, 159
research on DNA in, 136–37
Rutherford’s experiments with nitrogen and oxygen in, 140
transgender identity, 368
transgenic animals
coining of phrase, 421
ES cells used in creating, 421–22
ethical issues in using, 421
transgenic humans
available technologies for possible creation of, 489
problems using human ES cells for, 422
translation (of genes), 71–72, 164–65, 166–67, 314
transracial adoptees, intelligence of, 348
Tsui, Lap-Chee, 289–90
Turkheimer, Eric, 347, 487
Turner syndrome, 267, 269, 273
twins
first derivative of identity shared by, 355
genes turned on or off in, 392
nature versus nurture and differences between, 403
sexual reassignment of one twin, 364
twin studies
concordance rates in, 129, 345–46, 373–74, 443, 446
Galton’s invention of, 128
gay siblings among, 373–74, 373n, 376
of identical twins separated at birth, 345–46, 382
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (MISTRA) and, 381–82, 383–84, 386
nature versus nurture studies using, 128, 129
Nazi use of, 128, 129–30, 129n, 138, 380, 502
pattern of inheritance as clue to genetic influences in diseases in, 298–300
schizophrenia and, 298–300, 442, 445n
United States Patent Act, 245
US Bureau of the Census, 79
US Department of Energy (DOE), 301, 303–04, 318
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 249, 434, 435
US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), 245
US Supreme Court
Buck sterilization case before, 82, 83–84, 304
Roe case before, 268
University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), 211, 215, 237, 241, 296n
University of Munich, 124
University of North Carolina, Center for Thrombosis and Hemostasis, 248–49
University of Pennsylvania, Institute for Human Gene Therapy, 429, 435
University of Pennsylvania Hospital (University Hospital), OTC deficiency gene-therapy trial at, 431–33, 434–35
uracil, 135, 167
uterine cancer, 405
van Oudenaarden, Alexander, 389n
Van Wagenen, Bleecker, 77
variation
Darwin’s approach to, 36–37, 37n, 41, 44, 57, 181, 221n
Dobzhansky’s research on, 105–06, 108, 109–10
environmental factors affecting, 110
evolutionary history seen through, 333–34
Galton’s attempt to measure, 66–68
genetic diversity from range of, 265–66, 325
genetics as study of, 62, 102, 104, 221
genotypes in wild populations with, 107–08
human pathology related to, 205
information flow of instructions in heredity and impact of, 258
map of relatedness using, 334
mathematical modeling of multiple gene permutations in, 104–05
Mendel’s approach to, 46, 48, 221n
mutations for generating, 105–06, 110, 181, 261, 264
natural selection and, 104–05
phenotype as interactions between heredity, chance, environment, and evolution and, 107–08
risk for a disease linked to, 455n
temperature as environmental factor in, 106
triggers required with, 447
Wallace’s interest in, 39
Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication, The (Darwin), 44, 46
Varmus, Harold, 296, 296n
Vaux, David, 194n
Vavilov, Nicolai, 127
Venter, Craig, 306–10
background and training of, 306
Celera founded by, 312
fruit fly genome sequencing by, 315–16
gene-fragment technique in genome sequencing of, 306–09, 308n
gene patent proposals of, 308–09, 312, 319
Haemophilus genome sequencing by, 309–11, 313
human DNA sequencing by, 316, 317
joint announcement about first survey with Human Genome Project, 317–18, 319
The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) founded by, 309, 312
Verschuer, Otmar von, 124, 129
Vetter, David, 423
Victoria, Lady Welby, 73
Victoria, Queen of England, 98, 99
violence, genetic components of, 300, 301, 461, 492n
Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, Lynchburg, Virginia, 78–79, 80, 81, 120, 304
Virginia Supreme Court, 82
viruses
bacterial defense system against invasion by, 470–73
concerns about safety of, 227
gene delivery in gene therapies using, 465–66
insertion of corrected genes directly into the body in using, 430, 431–32, 434, 435, 470
insertion of genes into cells using, 418, 420, 466, 475
limitations of using in gene delivery, 389
vis essentialis corporis principle, 27
vitamin metabolism disorder, 453
Vogelstein, Bert, 297, 309
von Tschermak-Seysenegg, Erich, 60
Waddington, Conrad, 392–93, 394, 396, 399
Wade, Henry, 268
Waldeyer-Hartz, Wilhelm von, 92
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 38–39, 53, 59
Washington
Post, 230, 312, 424
Waterman, Alan, 232
Waterston, Robert, 312
Watson, James
background and training of, 146
Celera’s genome sequencing and, 319
Crick’s relationship with, 147–48, 147n
decision to work on DNA structure by, 146
DNA replication and, 179
double-helix DNA model of, 13, 150–51, 154–59, 160, 161, 179, 182, 314, 502
evaluation of genome sequencing by, 302, 303
Franklin’s research on DNA structure and, 149–50, 154
Human Genome Project headed by, 304, 308, 309, 310, 463–64
Pauling’s DNA research and, 148, 152–53
protein synthesis research and, 164, 165, 166n, 167
on slow rate of change in genetics, 294–95
Wilkins’s research on three-dimensional structure of DNA and, 145–46
Watson, Rufus, 303
Webb, Sidney, 272
Weinberg, Richard, 348
Weininger, Otto, 366
Weismann, August, 57–58, 76, 395
Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, 474
Welby, Lady, 73
Weldon, Walter, 69, 70, 73
Wellcome Trust, 304, 311
Wells, H. G., 73, 74, 75
Wexler, Alice, 283
Wexler, Leonore, 281–82, 283, 294
Wexler, Milton, 283, 284
Wexler, Nancy, 281–82, 283, 284–88, 294
What Is Life? (Schrodinger), 132, 140, 146, 147
Wheeler, John, 10
White, Gilbert, 248–49
White, John, 191
Whitehead, Alfred North, 110
whole genome sequencing. See genome sequencing
Wieschaus, Eric, 188
Wilkins, Maurice, 13
three-dimensional structure of DNA and, 13, 142–44, 145–46, 149, 153–54, 153n, 155, 158, 159, 314, 502
Watson and Crick’s double-helix DNA model and, 151, 158
Wilson, Allan, 333, 333n, 334–36, 438, 439
Wilson, Edmund, 358, 359
Wilson, James, 429–30, 431, 432, 434, 435
Wilson, James Q., 300
wingless gene, in fruit flies, 330
Wisconsin Regional Primate Center, Madison, Wisconsin, 468
Witkin, Evelyn, 182n
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 50
Wolff, Caspar, 26–27
Worm Genome Project, 303, 312–13
worms, 196
cell-fate determination research using, 190–92
comparisons between human and fly genes with, 316–17
death of cells in, 192–93, 194, 195
environmental triggers for gene actualization in, 263, 264
genome sequencing of, 303, 312–14, 313n, 315, 316, 317, 487
master-regulatory genes on, 392
memory transmission across generations in, 401
as model system for research, 259, 303
noncoding genes in, 314
Science publication of genome of, 315
sex chromosome research using, 93, 358
variability in gene expression in, 389n