overview of, 322–26
predictive power of, 487–89
technologies for intentionally changing, 489–90
Watson on changing genetic instructions in, 463–64
Human Genome Sciences (HGS), 312
human genome sequencing. See genome sequencing
human growth hormone (HGH), 238, 251
Hunger Winter. See Hongerwinter
Huntingtin gene, in humans, 287
Huntington’s disease, 282–89
anticipation phenomenon in, 288
description of, 282
family’s experience with, 281–82, 283
gene mapping in, 13, 283–84, 291, 294, 361
gene therapy proposed for, 428
genome editing (genomic surgery) for, 472
identification of genes linked to, 13, 286–88, 294, 329
inheritance pattern in, 282–83, 288
mutant from Barranquitas, Venezuela, families as basis for locating gene in, 284–86, 289
mutation found in, 288–89
possibility of gene therapies for, 428
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for, 457, 477
Huxley, Julian, 274
hybrids
Correns’s experiments with, 59–60
de Vries’s experiments with, 58–59, 60–61
Mendel’s experiments with, 46, 48–52, 54–55
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), 451
hyperactivity syndrome, 491
hypertension, 262, 487
hypomania, 447
identical twins. See twins; twin studies
identity
definition of race and, 341, 351
first derivative of, 355
genetic cascade explanation of, 368–69
genetic links to, 11–12, 14, 91, 125, 184, 192
human embryogenesis and formation of, 407
theory of heredity used to construct, 127
idiots, classification of, 77, 84, 273
imbeciles
Buck case on sterilization of, 79–82, 84, 304
classification of, 79, 116–17, 273, 304–05
immigration
Partition of Bengal and, 4–5
popularity of eugenics and increase in, 82–83
of scientists from Nazi Germany, 130, 131, 146
immune-response gene, in humans, 279–80, 281
immune system
ADA deficiency and collapse of, 422, 423–24
antibodies in, 323
in bacteria, 470
C4 gene linked to schizophrenia and, 445n
chromosomal genes modulating cell interactions in, 325
genomes and antibody responses in, 323
hemochromatosis gene and, 279–80, 281
OTC deficiency treatment and, 430, 435, 465
pneumococcus variant research involving, 112–14
Pneumocystis pneumonia and, 246
virus vectors in gene therapy and, 465
India, sexual selection for male children in, 456–57
industrial revolution, 72
infantile polycystic kidney disease (PKD), 270
infertility, 262, 361, 468, 488
influenza infection, pneumonoccal pneumonia after, 112
information flow
of biological information, 169, 410
instructions in heredity and, 70–71, 163, 169, 257, 258
from parent to child in Darwin’s theory of evolution, 46
reverse transcriptase and direction of, 223
Szostak’s generation of self-replicating genes and, 412–13
information theory, and formation of genes, 412–13
Ingram, Vernon, 170n
inheritance patterns
as clue to genetic influences in a disease, 298–300
mental illness and, 73–74
Morgan’s research on gene linkage in, 93–96
inheritance theories
ancient Greek philosophers on, 21–24
Bateson on power of genes in, 63
Christian belief on Adam as First Parent in, 25
de Vries on particles of information in, 58
Weismann on germplasm in, 57–58
Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (Galton), 63
Institute for Genomic Research, The (TIGR), 309–10, 311, 312
Institute for Human Gene Therapy, University of Pennsylvania, 429, 435
Institute of Genetics, Soviet Union, 127
intelligence
combination of genes and environment influencing, 346, 349, 379
concept of “gene for,” 480–81
controversy over The Bell Curve’s approach to, 343, 345, 346, 348
definition of, 343–44
eugenics and selection for, 273, 275, 344
Galton on heredity and measurement of, 66–67, 68, 74, 103, 110, 128, 343
general intelligence concept of, 344–45
genetics and categorization by, 350–51
race and genetic variation in, 14, 341
twin studies of inheritance of, 129
intelligence tests
measurement of intelligence using, 344–45
performance predicted by results of, 349
race as factor in taking, 348
intergenic DNA, 220, 307, 324, 401
International Conference on Eugenics, London (1912), 76, 120
introns, 219–20, 248, 280, 295, 307, 324, 379, 401–02, 486
in vitro fertilization (IVF)
federal limits on cell lines from discarded embryos after, 469
human ES cells derived from discarded embryos after, 468–69
insertion of corrected gene in discarded embryos from, 478
process of, 456, 468, 474
Irons, Ernest, 170
Itakura, Keiichi, 241, 242, 243
Itano, Harvey, 170
IT15 gene, in humans, 287
IVF. See in vitro fertilization
Jablonski, Walter, 128n
Jackson, David, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213, 291
Jacob, François, 164, 165–66, 175, 175n, 176, 176n, 177, 178, 215, 228, 314, 392
Jaenisch, Rudolf, 422, 477
Jamison, Kay Redfield, 448–49
Japan, atomic bombing (1945) in, 301
Jenkin, Fleeming, 44–46, 66
Jensen, Arthur, 345
Jews
American eugenicists’ concern about, 83
genetic screening of, for Tay-Sachs disease, 291, 342, 350
immigration by, 82, 83
Mengele’s experiments on Jewish twins, 129–30, 129n, 138, 380, 502
Nazi belief in genetic immutability of, 127
Nazi extermination of, 123, 124–25, 137, 457
Nazi policies on scientists and migration of, 130, 131
Nazi racial cleansing laws on, 121–22
Nazi twin studies on, 123
studies of reared-apart twins raised as, 383, 384
Johannsen, Wilhelm, 71, 172
Johns Hopkins Hospital, Moore Clinic, 261
Journal of Hygiene, 114
Judt, Tony, 479
Kafatos, Fotis, 223n
Kaiser, Dale, 205
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin, 118, 119, 120, 124, 130
kakogenics, 75
Kamin, Leon, 346
Kan, Y. Wai, 280n
Kantsaywhere (Galton), 76
Keller, Evelyn Fox, 292
Kerr, John, 193
Kevles, Daniel, 72
Khorana, Har, 168
Kidd, Benjamin, 73
Kiley, Tom, 241
Kimble, Judith, 194, 195
Kimura, Motoo, 333n
King, Desmond, 457–58
King, Mary-Claire, 438–39, 440
Kinzler, Ken, 309
Kleiner, Perkins, Caulfield and Byers, 239
Klinefelter syndrome, 267, 269
Kornberg, Arthur, 92, 180, 203, 205, 234, 237
&n
bsp; Korsmeyer, Stanley, 194
Kravitz, Kerry, 278, 279, 281
Krebs, Hans, 130, 131
Kretschmar, Gerhard, 122
Kretschmar, Lina, 122
Kretschmar, Richard, 122
lactose metabolism
genes turned on or off for, 174–76, 176n, 307n, 392
operon for controlling, 176n, 177
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 42, 44, 57, 60, 61, 126, 395, 406
Lamarckism, 126
Lambda bacteriophage, 207
Lander, Eric
Celera’s database and, 319, 320
clone-by-clone assembly approach and, 311
gene patent proposals and, 309
human genome sequencing and, 312, 315, 318, 320
mathematical models for genes from, 302, 311, 320
Langerhans, Paul, 239, 240
language, transformation of words in, 29–30
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 35
Larkin, Philip, 339
Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring (Sterilization Law), Germany, 121, 124
Leder, Philip, 168
Lederberg, Joshua, 236
legal issues
gene cloning and, 230
gene patent controversy and, 308–09
proposed moratorium on use of genomic engineering due to, 477
recombinant DNA technology patent and, 237, 308
Lejeune, Jérôme, 262n
Lenz, Fritz, 119
Leopold, Prince, Duke of Albany, 99
Lessing, Doris, 147n
leukemia, 405
Levene, Phoebus, 135
Lewis, Ed, 186–87, 188
Lewontin, Richard, 342, 372–73
ligase, 206, 214
Lincoln, Abraham, 261
linguistics, 124, 331, 335, 336
linkage analysis, 109, 286, 378, 439, 445, 445n
Linnaeus, Carl, 20
Linnean Society, 39, 53
Lionni, Leo, 190
Lobban, Peter, 205, 207, 208
London School of Economics, 73
Lyell, Charles, 32, 34, 35, 39
lymphoma, 194, 405
Lysenko, Trofim, 126–27, 396, 406
Lysenkoism, 127
Macklin, Ruth, 435
MacLeod, Colin, 136, 137
malnourishment, impact on children of, 393–94
Malthus, Thomas, 36–37, 38–39, 44, 274
Manhattan Project, 140, 232
mania, 388, 448, 449, 492–93
Maniatis, Tom, 223n, 247, 248
Manto, Saadat Hasan, 4
mapmaker genes, 188, 189–90
mapping of genes. See gene mapping
Marfan syndrome
mutation in, 263, 264
single genetic link in, 261, 262
symptoms in, 263
Marvel Comics, 266
Marxism, 396
massively parallel DNA sequencing, 443, 450
master-regulatory genes, 403n
alterations in cell lineages in worms using, 392
epigenetic marks and, 403n
factors affecting impact of, 195, 387, 392
influence of environment and, 408
Lewis’s discovery of process of, 187
Swyer syndrome with, 361
mathematical intelligence, 345
mathematics and mathematical relationships
gene mapping using, 281, 302, 377
Mendel’s use of, 46, 51, 58
modeling of hereditary traits using, 103–04
move away from heredity as formulation in, 92
Pythagorean theorem on, 22
Matthaei, Heinrich, 168
Maudsley, Henry, 73–74
Maxam, Allan, 218
Mayr, Ernst, 274
Mbuti Pygmies, 336, 339
McCarty, Maclyn, 136, 137
McCorvey, Norma, 268
McGarrity, Gerard, 426
McKusick, Victor, 260, 261–64, 265, 269, 275, 276, 449
MECP2 gene, in humans, 454
Medawar, Peter, 204, 222
Medical Research Council (MRC), United Kingdom, 217, 304
megatherium, 32
memory. See also genetic memory
genes turned on or off to record, 392
Hongerwinter experience and, 394
transgenic mice for research on, 421
Mendel, Gregor Johann, 13, 47–55
Augustinian monastic tradition and, 17–18, 49
background and training of, 18–19
Bateson’s conversion to ideas of, 61–62, 61n, 70, 71
Darwin compared with, 43
Darwin’s research and, 46, 53
de Vries’s research and, 58, 59–60
education in natural sciences for, 19–20, 47–48
eugenics supporters and, 75–76
impact of theory of, 70–71
mathematical relationships used by, 46, 51, 58
Morgan on genetic linkages and, 94–95
Nägeli’s criticism of, 54, 55
plant-breeding experiments of, 48–52, 51n, 54–55
publication of papers of, 46, 53–54
rediscovery of work of, 59, 60, 61–63, 61n, 70, 72, 321, 502
units of heredity explored by, 53–54, 62, 70, 71, 92, 106
von Tschermak’s rediscovery of work of, 60
Mendel booths, 86
Mengele, Josef, 124, 129–30, 138, 380, 502
mental deficiency, and Nazi sterilization program, 121
mental illness
criminal behavior linked to, 300–301
family’s concern about inheriting, 7–8
genetic diversity in, 298
inheritance patterns in, 73–74
intergenerational histories of, 8
mental retardation, 85, 267, 456
Mering, Josef von, 239–40
Merriman, Curtis, 128n
Mertz, Janet, 208, 209–10, 211, 211n, 212, 213, 214, 226
Meselson, Matthew, 165
messenger molecules, 164–66
methyl groups
in gene-silencing, 400
in twin studies of epigenomes, 402
mice
ES cells derived from, 468, 469
Mendel’s brief use of, for inheritance experiments, 49
OTC deficiency gene-therapy research using, 430
stem cells derived from embryos from, 419
transgenic, in gene research, 421–22
virus genes in composite embryos using, 418
Weismann’s heredity research using, 57
micelles, 411–12
micro-RNAs, 314
Miescher, Friedrich, 134
migration
genetic variation related to, 386
human genome studies and, 503
Out of Africa theory and, 336–37
racial classification and, 342
Mill on the Floss, The (Eliot), 75
Millais, Sir Everett, 69
Miller, Stanley, 411
Milton, John, 32
Minkowski, Oskar, 239–40, 240n
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (MISTRA), 381–82, 383–84, 386
Mitochondrial Eve, 338, 339, 438
Molecular Biology of Homo sapiens symposium (1986), Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 302
molecular memory, histone marking of, 401–02
“Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid” (Watson and Crick), 158
Money, John, 363–64, 380
monkeys
ADA deficiency gene-therapy research using, 424
ES cells derived from embryos of, 468
IVF embryo research using, 468–69
OTC deficiency gene-therapy research using, 430, 434
SV40 virus in, 204
Monod, Jacques, 164, 173–77, 175n, 176n, 177, 178, 215, 314, 392
monogenic diseases
classification of, 260–62
number of, 482
preimplantation g
enetic diagnosis (PGD) used in, 457
Moore, Joseph Earle, 261
Moore Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, 261
moral issues. See also ethical issues
abortion and, 458, 464
ES cells and genetic changes and, 473
gene cloning and, 233
gene therapy and, 436
genetic diagnosis and, 437–38, 457, 458
genetic screening and, 275, 492n
genotypes used in social engineering and, 460–61
human normalcy through genes and, 331, 349, 458
IVF procedures and, 474
negative eugenics and, 76
oversimplification of the logic of genetics and, 110
power to determine genetic “fitness” and, 461–62
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and, 456, 464
state-mandated medical procedure without consent and, 458
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 92–98
background and training of, 92
crossing over of genes and, 96
physical basis of genes on chromosomes and, 92, 93–96
proximity of genes on chromosomes and, 96–97
research on material form of genes by, 97–98
Mormon families, genetic studies of, 279
morons, classification of, 77, 80, 273
Muller, Hermann, 114–18, 314
background and personal life of, 94, 114–15, 117–18
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin, research by, 118, 119, 130, 131
positive eugenics and, 116–17, 274
radiation-induced changes in mutant rates in fruit flies and, 115–16, 131, 220
Müller, Max, 190
Muller-Hill, Benno, 176n
Mulligan, Richard, 423–24, 428, 473
Mullis, Kary, 302
multigenic diseases. See also polygenic syndromes
mathematical models for genes in, 302
Munch, Edvard, 450
Murray, Charles, 343, 345, 346, 347
Murray, John, 39
Muslim people, and Partition of Bengal, 4–5
mutants
Beadle on missing metabolic function in, 162–63
Darwin on, 41, 61
de Vries’s discovery and naming of, 61
Morgan’s fruit-fly research on, 94, 95
mutations
cancers with, 13
combination of, in genetic disorders, 299
concerns about responsible use of genome engineering to change, 476
in cystic fibrosis, 289–90, 459, 464
diagnostic tests for, 459
diverse manifestations of disease in diverse organs from, 263
evolutionary history seen through, 333–34
genetic screening for, 13
human diseases linked to, 260–62
in Huntington’s disease, 288–89
information theory on impact of, 413
in Marfan syndrome, 263
natural selection and transmission of, 421
nuclear transfer technique to bypass, 398n
pattern of inheritance of, as clue to genetic influences in disease, 298–300