concerns about responsible use of genome engineering for treatment or cure of, 476
creating a fate map for, 488–89
mismatch between genome and environment in, 264–65, 482
monogenic, 260–62, 295
need to understand intersection between genetic information, behavioral exposures, and random chance in, 487
neo-eugenics (newgenetics) to select against specific, 273–74
pattern of inheritance as clue to genetic influences in, 298–300
penetrance and expressivity of genes in, 263–64, 447
polygenic, 262
polygenic, caused by multiple genes at multiple locations, 262–63, 295
problem of identifying actual genes causing, 278–79
tendencies toward, identified by genome sequencing, 490–91
genetic engineering, 291
ban on federal funding for ES cells for, 469
as beginning of a new era, 226
Berg’s early work with recombinant DNA and, 206–08
challenges to implementing, 467
as conceptual shift, 294
concerns about safety of, 226
cystic fibrosis gene research using, 290n
Genentech formed to explore, 239
hemophilia treatment using, 466–67
interest in future applications of, 222, 291, 417
steps in achieving, in humans, 475
genetic links
in autism, 265, 276, 406, 444, 444n, 448, 449, 454, 482, 503
in bipolar disease, 8, 388, 444, 447, 449, 453, 503
in cancer, 9
creativity and, 449
criminal behavior and, 300–301
development of genetic diagnosis and increase in number of, 437
genes predictive of risk and, 447
intergenerational family histories showing, 8
possible use of technology for changing, 9
in schizophrenia, 8, 129, 261, 262, 276, 298–300, 303, 442, 445n, 449, 453, 503
genetic memory
cell’s capacity to selectively silence, 403
epigenetics used to alter, 406
experience transmitted to next generation in, 395–96
gene transmission in, 396
histone marking of molecular memory on genes and, 401–02
Hongerwinter experience and, 394, 395, 405–06
nuclear transfer experiments and, 396–99, 402
random inactivation of X chromosomes and, 399–400
Yamanaka’s experiment to reverse, 404–05
genetics
agricultural fair booths on, 85
Aristotle’s work in, 23, 24
Bateson’s coining of word, 62
central dogma on movement of, 169, 172, 221, 223
coining of new words and language for, 71–72
conceptual shifts in, 293–94
diseases linked with, 260–61, 291
dissatisfaction with slow rate of change in, 294–95
four phases of quest to understand, 321
power to determine “fitness” using, 461–62
scale shifts in, 294
shift from pathology focus to being science of normalcy, 330
Soviet political ban on, 125–26, 127
thematic focus of, 330–31
Genetics Institute (GI), 247–48
genetic screening. See also genetic diagnosis; genetic tests
for BRCA1 gene, 13, 438, 439–40, 457
for cystic fibrosis, 291
for Down syndrome, 13, 269, 273, 275, 458, 490n
for Gaucher’s disease, 291
lawsuits over medical advice received after, 270–71
neo-eugenics (newgenetics) and, 272–75
parental right to choose not to have a child after, 271
right to be born and, 269, 270, 272
selective abortion after, 269, 269n, 273
as social responsibility, 275
genetic tests. See also genetic diagnosis; genetic screening
for BRCA1 gene sequence, 439, 440
diseases amenable to, 455
genes predictive of risk and, 447
as moral tests, 438
principles guiding use of, 458–59
for schizophrenia, 446–47, 449
therapeutic abortion performed on basis of, 268
genetic therapies, 491
geniuses
inheritance patterns and, 74
schizophrenia and, 448
sperm banks (repository) for choosing, 274, 276
genome editing (genomic surgery), 472
Genome Project. See Human Genome Project
genomes
cancer and, 9
epigenetic system for functioning of, 402–03
evolutionary history seen in, 333n
mismatch between environment and, 264–65, 482
sequencing of. See Human Genome Project; genome sequencing
genome sequencing, 306–21
choice of simple organisms to use in early research using, 303
Clinton on success of, 318–19
comparisons between human, worm, and fly genes in, 316–17
conception of gene changed by, 294, 314–15, 321
decision to use, after genetic diagnosis results, 461–62
early evaluation of technical feasibility of, 301–03
estimating number of genes in, 313n
of fruit flies, 303, 315–17
gene patent proposals for, 308–09, 312
Haemophilus genome and, 309–11, 313
of human genome. See Human Genome Project
joint announcement about first survey of, 317–19
joint publication of papers on, 321
natural ambiguity in, 194
noncoding genes in, 314, 455n
overview of human genome in, 322–26
rapid-sequencing machine for, 302, 306
for schizophrenia, 461
shotgun-sequencing technique in, 310, 311, 312, 316, 319
single cell with multiple functions in, 313
single function with multiple cells in, 313–14
tendencies toward disease identified by, 490–91
Venter’s gene-fragment technique in, 306–09, 308n
of worms, 303, 312–14, 313n, 315, 316, 317
genomic code, 325
genomic engineering, 463–83
ban on federal funding of new ES cells for, 469, 476
Berg’s experiments with, 206–07, 226
Chinese’s experiments with human embryos using, 478
concerns about responsible enhancement of genomes in, 464, 477
CRISPR/Cas9 system for adding genetic code into genome in, 472, 477, 478, 489
draft of guide on “post-genomic” use of, 479–83
establishment of reliable human ES cells needed for, 467–69, 475
federal bans on aspects of, 476, 479
first permanent human genome engineering experiment in, 478–79
first targeted genome modification of human embryo in, 479
gene-modified ES cells converted into reproductive cells before use in, 473–74
genetic emancipation versus genetic enhancement in, 477
hurdles to, 467
incorporating genetic changes created in ES cells into human embryos in, 473–75
interest in future applications of, 12, 14, 476
IVF and, 475
justification for adding information to the genome in, 477
Medawar on possibilities of, 222
method to create intentional genetic changes in genomes of ES cells needed for, 469–73, 475
modern technologies for, 12, 14
need for evaluation of, 12
NIH prohibition on two kinds of research using human ES cells in, 476
public support for lifting bans on, 479
questions to be explored in, 475–76
reproductive
cells modified in, 464–65, 467
scientists’ proposal for a moratorium on use of gene editing and gene-altering techniques in, 476–77
severe disease treatment or cure as responsible use of, 476
steps needed for creating genetically modified humans using, 475–76
virus genes inserted into composite embryos for, 418
genotypes, 71
environmental factors affecting phenotype outcomes with, 107
eugenics and manipulation of, 74
interactions between heredity, chance, environment, variation, and evolution and, 107–08
phenotypes determined by, 106–07
random change in phenotype outcomes with, 107
social engineering using, 460–61
geographic factors
Darwin’s research on bird population evolution affected by, 37–38, 45n
D4DR variant distribution and, 386
development of twins reared apart, 382
new species formation and, 45n, 108–09
spread of early humans and, 339–41
Wallace’s theory of bird population variants affected by, 39
geology, 19, 28, 30, 32, 38, 47, 335, 336, 340
Germany. See also Nazi Germany
eugenics programs in, 76–77
scientists’ migration from, as reaction to Nazism, 130, 131, 146
germ cells. See also eggs; sperm
conversion of ES cells into, 474
gemmule theory of heredity with, 43
Hongerwinter memory’s marking of, 405–06
germplasm
eugenicists on eliminating defects in, 83
Weismann on inheritance of, 57–58
Gilbert, Walter, 166n, 176n
DNA sequencing by, 218, 219, 222, 243
genome-sequencing evaluation by, 302–03
insulin synthesis and, 241, 242, 244
giraffes, evolution of, 42, 57, 395
Gleick, James, 10n, 409
glucose metabolism, genes turned on or off for, 174–76, 176n, 392
Goeddel, David, 244–45, 247
Goldstein, David, 450
Goodfellow, Peter, 360–61, 362
Goodship, Daphne, 382–83
gorillas
evolution and, 332
pairs of chromosomes of, 322
Gosling, Ray, 151, 153n, 158
Gottesman, Irving, 298
Gould, John, 34
Gould, Stephen Jay, 348
Graham, Robert, 274, 276
Gray, Asa, 44
Greece, ancient, inheritance theories in, 21–24, 27
Griffith, Frederick, 112–15, 131, 133, 136, 158, 159, 212
growth hormone gene, in humans, 421
guanine, 135, 156
Gurdon, John, 396–99, 398n, 402, 404
Gusella, James, 286, 287
Gypsies, Nazi extermination of, 124–25, 137
Hadamar hospital, Germany, 123
Haemophilus influenzae, genome sequencing of, 309–11, 313
Hahn, Otto, 130
Haiselden, Harry, 85
Haldane, J. B. S., 292
Hamer, Dean
background and training of, 371–72
homosexuality-related genes (gay genes) research of, 373–78, 379
sexual orientation interest of, 372–73
Hammarsten, Einar, 139
Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 26
Haussler, David, 320
hawkweed plant-breeding experiments of Mendel, 54–55
height
genetic links in, 66, 68, 68n, 74, 103, 104, 110, 128, 334, 480, 481
genetic manipulations to increase, 76
Mendel’s plant studies on, 48, 51, 95
twin studies of, 374, 382
variance distribution of, 66, 67, 68, 85, 103, 457
hemochromatosis, 278–79, 281
hemoglobin
beta-thalassemia mutation and, 424n
gene regulation of, 178, 307n
oxygen binding by, 141–42, 164
sickle cell anemia and, 170, 171, 173, 184
hemophilia
factor VIII therapy for, 246–47, 249
gene therapy for, 466–67
genetic inheritance of, 98–99, 100, 129, 260, 264, 278
genetic map of, 291
HIV infection with, 249
Russian royal family with, 98, 99–100
Henn, Brenna, 338
Henslow, John, 28, 31
hepatitis B vaccine, 251
Hepburn, Audrey, 394
Herbert, Barbara, 382–83
Hereditary Disease Foundation, 283
Hereditary Genius (Galton), 68, 72, 502
Hereditary Health Courts (Germany), 122
Hereditary Monstrosities (de Vries), 58
heredity
ancient Greek philosophers on, 21–24
Bateson on power of genes in, 63, 74
Bateson on transmission of units in, 70–71
cancer as a genetic disease related to, 297
Christian belief on Adam as First Parent in, 25
coining of new words for units in, 71–72
Darwin’s work on theory of, 41–43, 46, 57
de Vries on particles of information in, 58, 60, 61, 62
encoding of basic information in, 25–26
epigenetics used to alter, 406
eugenics and laws of, 74
Galton’s research on, 65–70, 74, 103
gemmule theory of, 43–44, 57, 66, 113, 395–96
gene as basic unit of, 9–10, 485
genetic information in, 101–02
homunculus concept in, 25–26, 43, 337
information flow of instructions in, 70–71
Lamarck’s approach to, 42
mathematical modeling of traits in, 103–04
Mendel’s exploration of units of, 53–54, 62, 70, 71
notion of human identity constructed using, 127–28
phenotype as interactions between chance, environment, variation, and evolution and, 107–08
shock therapy for plants to overcome, 126–27, 406
theory of evolution needed with, 57, 65, 66
variation in, 36
Weismann on information passed in, 57–58
Wolff on fertilized eggs in, 26–27
Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (Davenport), 77
Herrick, James, 170
Herrnstein, Richard, 300, 343, 345, 346, 347
Herschel, Sir John, 29, 30
Hershey, Alfred, 139n
Hess, Rudolf, 119n
Heyneker, Herbert, 241n
high-risk behavior, 5HTTLRP gene associated with, 459, 460
Hiroshima, Japan, atomic bombing (1945) of, 301
Hirsh, David, 194
histones, 400–401, 405, 407
Hitler, Adolf, 124
eugenics and extermination policy of, 122–23, 275
racial hygiene beliefs of, 120–21
rise of, 119
scientists leaving Germany as reaction to, 130, 131, 146
HIV, 249, 418, 423
Hobbes, Thomas, 75
Hodgkin, Dorothy, 145, 150
Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr., 83–84
homosexuality
Bieber’s theory of, 370–71
as choice, 370–71
Freud on, 442
gay gene and, 371
Hamer’s research on genes related to, 373–78, 379
psychiatrists on, in 1950s and 1960s, 370
Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals (Bieber), 370
homosexuals, Nazi extermination of, 125
homunculus concept, in inheritance, 25–26, 43, 337
Hongerwinter (Hunger Winter), Netherlands
description of, 393–94
gene expression and cellular memory affected by, 405–06
grandchildren’s genetic memory of, 394, 395
physical impact on grandchildren of survivors of, 394
Ho
od, Leroy, 302, 306
Hopkins, Nancy, 176n
hormonal therapy in sexual reassignment, 364, 365–66
Horne, Ken, 246
Horvath, Philippe, 470
Horvitz, Robert, 191, 192–94
hospitals
colonies in eugenics movement and, 77, 78–79, 80–81, 82, 84, 120, 304–05
genetic screening in, 269, 291
OTC deficiency gene-therapy trial in, 431–33, 434–35
sexual reassignment in, 363–64
Hox gene family, 324
Huang, Junjiu, 478–79, 480
Huberty, James, 298, 301
Hughes, Everett, 329
human embryos
ethical issues about genomic engineering use of, 473
experiments to derive stem cells from, 467–69
federal limits on cell lines from, 469
first permanent human genome engineering experiment using, 478–79
human ES cells derived from discarded IVF embryos, 468–69
targeted genome modification of, 479
human genetics
gene mapping as transformative moment in, 288, 291–92
impact on medicine and health of new interest in, 259–60
links between diseases and, 260–61
monogenic diseases in, 260–62
neo-eugenics (newgenetics) and, 272–77
nuclear transfer technique using mitochondria and, 398n
polygenic disease caused by multiple genes in multiple locations in, 262–63, 295
polygenic syndromes in, 262
Human Genome Project, 306–12, 315
catalog of genes by, 330
challenge of finishing sequence for, 311
Clinton on success of, 318–19
clone-by-clone assembly approach in, 311, 319
conflicts between Celera and, 317, 319
draft genome sequence publication by, 13
federal control of, 303–04, 309
funding for, 312
initial meeting of, 304
international collaborators on, 304
joint announcement about first survey with Venter’s Celera, 317–19
joint publication of papers by, 321
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) used in, 302
purpose of, 13–14
Science publication of work of, 315
as starting point in inquiry into the exact nature of information, 486
Sturtevant’s research on gene linkages as basis for, 97
technical hurdles encountered by, 319–20
Watson as head of, 304, 308, 309, 310, 463–64
human genomes
concern about ability to alter, 464
creating a fate map for, 488–89
difficulty of deciphering combinations of variants in, 487
Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENC-O-DE) on, 486–87
future of research on, 330
gene therapy on reproductive cells introduced into, 464–65
need for direct study of, 486–87
number of genes in, 322, 323