unpredictable nature of some genes affected by, 454
Chargaff, Erwin, 155, 156, 210
Charpentier, Emmanuelle, 470, 471–72
Chase, Martha, 139n
Chessin, Herbert, 270–71
chimeras, genetic, 204, 207, 212–13, 214, 225–26, 308, 475
chimpanzees
genetic identity shared with humans, 438
genomes of, 322, 335, 340, 438
China, 304, 469
fetal genome testing in, 490n
human genome engineering experiment in, 478–79
sexual selection for male children in, 457
cholera, 290n
Christian beliefs
divine involvement in creation held by, 30, 35–36
preformation debate on Adam and inheritance and, 25, 27
chromatin, 134, 135
chromosome jumping, 289–90, 294
chromosomes
coining of word, 92
early research to identify, 92–93
evolution of number of pairs of, 322
extra, in polygenic syndromes, 262
gene locations on, 93
genetic information carried on, 358
genetic syndromes with abnormalities in, 267
Huntington’s gene location on, 286
mapping genes to specific locations on, 279–81, 287
noncoding genes on, 314, 455n
Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT) for identification of abnormalities on, 490n
random inactivation of, 399–400
Schrödinger on molecular structure of, 132
chromosome X, 325
Churchill, Winston, 76
classification systems
for feeblemindedness in eugenics, 79, 116–17, 273, 304–05
Cline, Martin, 424n
Clinton, Bill, 317, 318–19
cloning. See also gene cloning
nuclear transfer technique in, 397–98
clotting factors
factor VIII gene mutation and, 197, 246–47, 248
in hemophilia, 98, 99, 466–67
isolation of, 291
clotting factor IX, in hemophilia, 466–67
c-myc gene, in humans, 405
Cohen, Stanley
background and training of, 212
bacterial gene transfer and, 229–30, 236
gene cloning and, 215, 222, 227
genetic hybrid experiments of, 212–14, 215
recombinant DNA and, 237, 308, 502
Collins, Francis, 477
background and training of, 147
cystic fibrosis gene cloning by, 289–90
Human Genome Project headed by, 310, 311, 312, 317–18, 319, 320
colonies, in eugenics movement, 77, 78–79, 80–81, 82, 84, 120, 304–05
Columbia University, 92, 93, 97, 105, 116, 117, 155, 366, 453
comic books, gene mutation superheroes portrayed in, 266
computational genomics, 14, 444–45, 488–89
concentration camps, in Nazi Germany, 124–25, 129–30, 137–38, 226, 502
Concepción, María, 285
conceptual shifts, in science breakthroughs, 293, 294
concordance, in twin studies, 129, 298–300, 345–46, 373–74, 443, 446
Conneally, Michael, 286
conspiracy theories, 3
copy number variation (CNV), 444n
Corey, Robert, 143, 152
coronary artery disease, 262
“Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance, The” (Fisher), 104
Correns, Carl, 59–60
Cory, Suzanne, 194n
Crea, Roberto, 241n
creation
Herschel on cause-and-effect mechanisms in, 29–30
Laplace on natural forces in, 35
Paley’s belief in divine origin of, 29
creativity
bipolar disease and, 448–49, 453
gene variants linked to, 386, 450
Crick, Francis, 147
background and training of, 147
DNA replication and, 179
double-helix DNA model of, 13, 148–49, 150–52, 154–56, 158, 159, 160, 161, 179, 182, 314, 502
Franklin’s talk on DNA structure and, 150
Watson’s relationship with, 147–48, 147n
Crime and Human Nature (Wilson and Herrnstein), 300, 343
criminals
environmental theories of, 300
eugenics on, 76, 77, 79
genetic identification of, 301, 303, 343, 350, 461
mental illness in, 300–301
CRISPR/Cas9 microbial defense system, 472, 477, 478, 489
Cro-Magnons, 332–33
crossing over, 96, 97, 182, 208, 334–35, 502
Crow, James, 274, 275
crystallography
double-helix model using, 152, 158
three-dimensional structure of DNA on, 142, 143, 147
Culver, Kenneth, 424n
Curie, Marie, 145
Cutshall, Cynthia, 426, 427–28, 429, 464
cystic fibrosis, 270, 281
diagnostic test for, 291
gene mapping in, 13, 289–90
gene therapy proposed for, 428
identification of genes linked to, 13, 294
inheritance of, 290n, 291
mutations found in, 289–90, 459, 464
possibility of gene therapies for, 428
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) in, 457, 477
secretions seen in, 289, 290
cystic fibrosis (CF) gene, in humans, 329, 330
cytosine, 135, 156
D4DR gene, in humans, 385–86
Daily Telegraph, 377
Daley, George, 476
Danchin, Antoine, 196
Dancis, Joseph, 269–70, 272
Danisco, 470
Darbishire, Arthur, 69, 70
Darwin, Annie, 38
Darwin, Charles, 28–47
Beagle voyage to South America with, 28, 31–33
de Vries’s meeting with, 56
early notes on natural descent of animals by, 35–36
eugenics’ tenets borrowed from, 73
fossil collection of, 33–34
Galton’s book reviewed by, 68
Galton’s study of, 65, 66
gemmule theory of heredity of, 43–44, 57, 66, 113, 395–96
genetic memory as challenge to, 395
hereditary mechanism and, 41–42, 46, 57
implications of Mendel’s work for, 46, 53
interest in natural world held by, 28–30, 31
Jenkin’s criticism of, 44–46
Lyell’s theory of geological formations and, 32
Malthus’s theory of natural selection and, 37
Mendel compared with, 43
natural selection concept and, 37–38, 37n, 39–40, 61, 104
as observer and collector of specimens, 31, 32–33
Origin published by, 39–40
pangenesis theory of, 44, 57, 58, 71
sexual reproduction and, 360n
taxonomy preoccupation of, 34–35
theory of evolution of, 12
variation concept used by, 36–37, 37n, 41, 44, 57, 181, 221n
Wallace’s paper on evolution and, 38–39
Weismann’s experiments challenging, 57
Darwin, Erasmus, 65, 67
Darwin, Leonard, 76
Das Erbe (film), 121
Davenport, Charles, 77, 85, 116, 120, 122
Davis, Ron, 211n, 278, 280, 281, 288, 361
Dawkins, Richard, 197, 317, 345, 395, 421, 454, 490
De Gouvêa, Hilário, 295
Delbruck, Max, 24, 131
DeLisi, Charles, 301
Delphic boat parable, 196
dementia praecox, 442
deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
deoxyribose, in DNA, 135n
depression, 74, 77, 7
9, 282, 394, 449
childhood gender dysphoria with, 365, 366
genetic factors in, 224, 261, 262, 386, 388, 459, 487
Nazi sterilization programs for, 121, 123
Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (Darwin), 372
DeSilva, Ashanti (“Ashi”), 422–23, 426–27, 428, 429, 464
DeSilva, Van and Raja, 426, 427, 428
deviance
eugenics on, 116
genetic components of, 301
de Vries, Hugo
Bateson’s meeting with, 62
concept of pangenes used by, 57, 62, 71
criticism of, 69
Darwin’s meeting with, 56
Galton’s work and, 69, 72, 73
on importance of the gene, 10
inheritance theory of, 56, 57, 59–61, 62, 69, 72, 73, 94, 105
Mendel’s research and, 59, 60
mutants and, 61, 61n
plant-breeding experiments of, 58–61, 62
diabetes, 394
genetic links in, 224, 262, 312, 316, 374
insulin research in, 216, 240
twin studies of, 374, 382
Diamox, 451
Dieckmann, Marianne, 227, 234
diseases
concerns about responsible use of genome engineering for treatment or cure of, 476
creating a fate map for, 488–89
information flow of instructions in heredity and, 258
links between genetics and, 260–61, 291
mismatch between genome and environment in, 264–65, 482
monogenic, 260–62
need to understand intersection between genetic information, behavioral exposures, and random chance in, 487
pattern of inheritance as clue to genetic influences in, 298–300
penetrance and expressivity of genes in, 263–64
polygenic, 262
polygenic, caused by multiple genes, 262–63, 295
tendencies toward, identified by genome sequencing, 490–91
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 139–60
Aristotle’s inheritance theory anticipating, 24
Avery’s research on genetic information on, 137, 139, 158, 183, 205, 259, 314, 502
chemical composition of, 135, 135n
flow of biological information with, 410
Franklin’s criticism of Watson and Crick’s work on, 151–52
Franklin’s imaging research on structure of, 13, 144–45, 149–50, 153, 153n, 155, 158, 159, 314, 502
genetic code and, 160, 161, 291
genomic code on, 325
Hongerwinter memory’s marking of, 405–06
immutability of nature and techniques for manipulating, 292
impact of genetic engineering of, 222
information theory on formation of, 413
Miller’s “primordial soup” experiments to form, 411
recombinant. See recombinant DNA
replication of, 179–80, 180n, 182, 288, 296
sequencing of. See gene sequencing
Watson and Crick’s double-helix model of, 13, 150–51, 154–59, 160, 179, 182, 314, 502
Watson on Wilkin’s research on, 146
Wilkin on three-dimensional structure of, 13, 142–44, 145–46, 149, 153–54, 153n, 155, 158, 159, 160, 161, 314, 502
DNA polymerase, 163, 180, 206, 218, 302
DNA repair, 184
DNA sequencing. See gene sequencing
Dobbs, Vivian Buck, 80, 81–82, 304–05
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 105–10
background and training of, 105
genetic variant experiments using fruit flies by, 105–08, 110
geographic factors affecting interbreeding and, 108–09
DOCK3 gene, in humans, 451
Dolly (sheep cloning experiment), 397
dominant traits, Mendel’s plant-breeding experiments, 51–52
dopamine-receptor gene, 385
Doppler, Christian, 20, 52
double-helix model of DNA, 13, 150–51, 154–59, 160, 179, 182, 314, 502
Doudna, Jennifer, 470, 471–72, 474, 476
Down syndrome
description of symptoms of, 262
diagnostic tests for, 458
extra chromosome in, 262, 262n, 267, 455
genetic-linked temperament in, 269, 384
genetic screening for, 13, 269, 273, 275, 490n
hereditary variants of, 267–68
justifiable interventions in, 13, 458
therapeutic abortion based on prenatal test for, 267–68
variations among patients with, 275–76
Dozy, Andree, 280n
Dreiser, Theodore, 117
Drosophila. See fruit flies
Drysdale-Vickery, Alice, 73
Dulbecco, Renato, 203, 210
dwarfism, 77, 85, 138, 251, 265, 275, 482
Ebstein, Richard, 384–86
EcoR1 enzyme, 210–11, 211n
Efstratiadis, Argiris, 223n
eggs
Darwin’s gemmule theory on, 43, 57
de Vries on particles of information in, 58, 60, 61
gene-modified ES cells producing, 420
gene therapy on reproductive cells introduced into, 464–65
germ-line gene therapy with, 465, 467, 469, 474
Hongerwinter memory’s marking of, 405–06
identical and fraternal twin development and, 128
Mendel on inheritance of traits in, 51–52
NIH prohibition on transmitting genome modifications into, 476
nuclear transfer technique with, 396–97, 402
virus genes in composite embryos using, 418
Weismann on hereditary information in, 57–58
Wolff on fertilization of, 26–27
Ehrlich, Paul, 140
Einstein, Albert, 130, 131, 232, 233, 475
Einstein-Szilard letter on atomic bomb research, 232, 233
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 276
electrons, 140
Eli Lilly, 216, 251
Eliot, Charles, 76
Eliot, George, 75
Elledge, Steve, 182n
Ellis, Havelock, 75–76
embryonic development
brain synapses during, 445n
diagnosing fetal mutations using maternal blood during, 450
epigenetics used to alter, 406
interaction of genes and environment in, 392–93
interplay of genes and epigenes in, 407
nuclear transfer technique in, 396–99, 398n, 402
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) used during, 456–57
schizophrenia caused by gene alterations during, 444
virus genes in composite embryos in, 418
embryonic stem cells (ES cells). See also stem cells
ban on federal funding of, 469, 476
cell-culture growth of, 419
cell regeneration using, 419
challenge of establishing reliable human line of, for genomic engineering, 467–69, 475
eccentricities of cultivating, 468
ethical issues in using, 421
experimental transplantation of human ES cells into animals, 473
federal limits on cell lines used in, 469
foreign DNA with mutated inserted directly into, 470
gene-modification and conversion into reproductive cells before genomic engineering use of, 473–74
gene therapy using, 418–19
implications of using, 421
intentional genetic changes in genomes of, 469–73, 475
mouse embryos as source of, 420, 421
NIH prohibition on two kinds of research using, 476
pluripotent property of, 419
primordial germ cells created from, 474–75
problems using human ES cells, 422
radiation-induced mutations in, 469–70
range of possibilities for using, 419–20
self-renewing characteristic of, 419
targeting to specific genome positions of, 420
transfer of genetic modifications from culture to embryo using, 420
transgenic animals created using, 421–22
Enabling Act (Germany), 119–20, 121
Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENC-O-DE), 486, 487
end-1 gene, in worms, 389n
environmental factors
adoption in schizophrenia and, 300
cancer related to, 297, 491
child’s development related to, 379–80
criminal behavior related to, 300
Darwin’s research on bird population evolution affected by, 37–38, 45n
disease from mismatch between genetic endowment and, 264–65
as engine driving evolution, 108, 176
epigenetic modifications of genes and, 406–07, 409–10
flow of biological information and, 410
gender determination and gender identity and, 367, 379
genetic memory of, 395–96
genetic response to, 177, 178, 368, 380, 389n, 390, 393, 408, 480, 482, 485
intelligence influenced by, 273, 346
master-regulatory genes and influence of, 408
mismatch between genome and, 264–65, 482
mutations related to, 110, 296
nature versus nurture on hereditary factors versus, 67, 128, 297, 346–47, 403, 481
normal pressure hydrocephalus and, 257
phenotype and, 107–08, 263–65, 395
phenotype as interactions between heredity, chance, variation, and evolution and, 107–08
physical attributes influenced by, 107, 345, 454
triggers for illness in, 8, 257–58, 265, 276, 295, 297, 300, 441, 449, 460, 481, 482
twin studies of effects of, 129, 345–46, 380–81
variants adapted to, 37, 42, 104, 257, 265, 349–50
Wallace’s theory of bird population variants affected by, 39
environmental therapies, 491
enzymes
cutting and pasting DNA using, 205–06, 207, 210–11, 213, 280, 472n
DNA replication with, 180–81, 288
epigenes, interplay of genes with, 407
epigenetics, 393–410
dangerous aspects of possible applications of, 406–07, 408–09
histone marking of molecular memory on genes and, 402
individuality of cells and, 402–03, 404
nuclear transfer experiment and, 399
random inactivation of X chromosomes and, 399–400
Waddington’s description of, 393, 396
Yamanaka’s cell-fate reversal experiment and, 404–05
epigenomes
flow of biological information with, 410
gene actualization into organisms and, 487n
individuality of cells and, 407
twin studies of differences in, 402
epilepsy
eugenics on, 76, 77, 85, 121, 122
ES cell research on, 421
Erbe, Das (film), 121
Erbkrank (film), 121