Kendall, Diana, 269n3
Khan, Shamus, 15, 261n29
“labor of lifestyle,” 17, 61, 85–86, 194; and division of labor, 160, 167; as legitimate work, 61, 159–60, 169–70, 194; leisure as, 8, 79; stay-at-home parents and, 61, 78–85, 159, 194
Lacy, Karen, 275n16
Lamont, Michèle, 241, 241n21
Lareau, Annette, 260n22
laziness, 8–9, 63–64, 72–73, 233
Leach, Robin, 8
legitimation: cultural logic of, 232; of entitlement (see under entitlement); of privilege (see under privilege); Weber on “legitimate fortune,” vii
liberalism/progressivism, 32, 275n17
luck, 30, 47, 60, 63–66, 90, 150, 200
luxuries, 101; appreciation of, 127, 205; defining, 4; gendered spending on, 170; “luxury creep,” 114–15, 235; as needs, 105, 108, 110; as relative, 39, 108, 114–15, 117–19, 234–35; as “ridiculous” desires, 110–11; services, 240, 241, 249–50, 270n6
manners. See reciprocity
married couples: and anxiety about money, 110, 156, 158–59, 177, 185; asymmetrical power dynamics in, 179–89; complementarity and harmonious, 158–59, 163–66; conflicts over spending or consumption, 24, 155–60, 173–76, 180–81; and consumption work as contribution, 163, 167–68, 196; control of money within, 155–60, 162–64, 167, 173, 175–78, 180–81, 183–85; dependence within, 38–39, 63–64, 72, 90, 167, 176–79, 189, 193, 196, 272n2; duel earner, 189–93; entitlement within, 158–60, 175, 178–79, 196 (see also unpaid labor under this heading); financial independence within, 176–79, 193; inherited wealth and, 159–60, 178–79, 183–85; and labor of lifestyle as contribution, 17, 78–79, 159, 163–65, 169, 179, 195–96; legal entitlement to marital property, 175–76, 180, 185–86, 189; negotiation within, 112–13; provider/consumer dynamic in, 67–68, 163–67, 195; relations of distribution within, 157; same-sex, 88, 189; single-earner couples, 167, 194–95 (see also unpaid labor as contribution under this heading); spending control and constraints within, 156–59, 161–63, 167–68, 173, 178–79, 183–85; spending styles and, 158–59, 165–66, 171, 175; time as controlled resource in, 159, 171–75; traditional gender roles and, 159–63, 180–81, 183–84, 189, 191–92, 194–95; unpaid labor as contribution within, 24, 61, 81–82, 86–89, 157–60, 163–65
materialism, 8, 23–24, 38, 93, 101–6, 112–13, 120–21, 198, 221–23, 275n11
Mears, Ashley, 277n26
media: representation of wealth in, 8–9, 13, 254
meritocracy, 12–13, 22–23, 62, 254; and wealth as deserved, 64, 230
methodology: characteristics of sample, 14–15, 242, 245–47, 256, 266n1, 272n6; coding process, 251, 257, 277n19; confidentiality, 255–56; critiques of, 252–55; interview process, 248–52; New York City as research site, 13–15, 242, 249; recruitment of interviewees, 14, 242–45; sampling (see sampling); “saturation,” 251–52
middle class, 6; “aspiring to the middle,” 28–44, 94, 266n1; consumption choices as hallmark of, 36, 232; contrasted with “working class” and “upper class,” 262n33; definitions of, 259n16, 262n33; as ghost category, 7–8; moral worth and membership in, 7–8, 23, 31–32, 44, 121; normalization of affluence and identification with, 23–24, 36, 43, 121, 232–33
Mills, C. Wright, 234
“mood economy,” 265n77
morality, 25, 81–82; consumption as moral activity, 24, 94–96, 108–10, 120–21, 166, 173, 271n18 (see also prudence, financial); emotional conflict as moral appeasement, 129–30; and entitlement, 9, 23–25, 120–21, 127, 198–99, 232–33, 270n4; equality as moral value, 5, 52, 133, 233–37; and inhabitance of wealth or privilege, 25, 32; judging the wealthy, 8–10, 13, 20–21, 25–28, 44, 50, 104, 121, 232, 233, 256–58; middle-class associated with moral worthiness, 7–8, 23, 31–32, 44, 232; motherhood as morally worthy labor, 61, 79, 81–82, 198–99; spending on others as moral obligation, 76–77; work and moral worth, 8, 9–10, 24, 32, 60–63, 65–67, 72, 121, 227, 231. See also “good people”
nannies, 35, 54–55, 81, 85–88, 99–100, 105–6, 116–17, 134, 168. See also domestic employees
needs: children’s, 99–101, 118–19; consumption characterized as “normal” or “basic needs,” 23, 37, 92–96, 99–101, 106–14, 120–21, 145, 231; spending styles and definition of, 158; vs. wants as moral issue, 107–9
“new elite,” 14–15, 20
New York: as economic context, 28, 32–36, 53, 96–97, 104, 134, 239; inequality in, 13, 43–44; as research site, 13–15, 242, 249
noblesse oblige, 137
Obama, Barack, 43, 51
Occupy movement (protests against inequality), 10, 13, 51–52, 59, 236
“old money,” 12, 252, 271n14; vs. “new elite,” 14–15
“one percenters,” 13–14, 40–41, 241, 259n10, 263nn48–49, 267n3, 276n5
orientation, social: and concept of moral “goodness,” 56–57; flexibility of, 52–56; giving back and, 125, 137–39, 150–51; political ideology and, 52–53, 62
Ortner, Sherry, 253
ostentation, 8, 93–94, 97, 101–6, 120, 277n26; internal conflicts and, 2–4, 105; as morally suspect, 25, 93–94, 231; social reciprocity and avoidance of, 130–31; visible displays of wealth, 21, 27, 103–5, 277n26. See also talk of money
Ostrander, Susan, 12, 20, 78, 136, 139, 249
parenting. See children; stay-at-home parents
personal service providers, 5, 17–18, 119–20, 131–32, 140–41, 247–48, 251, 253, 265n70, 269n5
philanthropy, 8–9; and awareness of privilege, 124–26, 136–39; as “career,” 138; deferral of, 125, 144–46, 151–52; downward orientation and, 125, 139–40; exclusivity and, 269n3; and identity, 124–26, 135–39, 135–43, 142; as public display, 124–25, 142–43; selection of causes, 140
Piketty, Thomas, 10–11
political alignment of interviewees, 32, 123
politics: activism and, 49, 140, 142–43, 152, 153, 234; class in political discourse, 5–8, 11; conservatism of interviewees, 30–31, 123, 146; inequality as political matter, 10–11, 13, 43–44, 67, 126; liberalism/progressivism of interviewees, 1–2, 15, 30–32, 44, 48–52, 62, 142–43, 179, 220, 254, 275n17
poverty, 23, 47, 63–64, 213, 233–34, 262n44; the poor as social other, 47
privilege: anxiety and, 43–44, 69, 227; awareness of, 29–32, 53–54, 125–30, 151, 153, 199, 207–9, 212; denial or minimization of, 21–22, 38–40; discomfort with, 20–21, 39, 41, 60, 234; downward social orientation and, 29–32; inhabitance of, 25, 31; legitimation of, 22–23, 25–27, 60, 96, 151, 199, 228–30, 232–33, 235–36, 261n29; as “luck,” 30, 60, 90; prudence and, 126–27, 260n17; as “safety from anxiety” or “freedom from fear,” 46; “strategic modesty” as response to, 267n14; and structural inequality, 52, 66–67, 233; white privilege, 66–67, 233
productivity: consumption as productive labor, 83, 159–60; and moral value of work, 22–23, 58–61, 66, 90; unpaid labor as, 80, 86, 159
Protestant ethic, 7–8, 22–23, 91, 260n17
provider role, 67–68, 159–60, 189–95
prudence, financial, 8, 68–70, 93–94, 151, 231; and earned wealth, 69–70; exceptional spending and, 99–101; frugality, 60, 97–99, 151–52, 170; and “goodness,” 22–23, 231; inherited wealth and, 73; and moral worth, 90–91, 166; as respect for money, 128; self-imposed limits on consumption, 8, 96–101, 107–9, 113–14, 120–21; as strategy to counter financial anxiety, 68–69. See also risk, financial
Pugh, Allison, 220, 227, 241, 275n11, 276n25
race an
d ethnicity, 20, 275n16; assumptions about race and socioeconomic class, 222; cultural capital and, 275n17; and experience of wealth, 25–26; of interviewees, 15, 256; parenting concerns and, 214–16, 222; and reciprocity, 133; research methodology and racial identity, 256; and upward mobility, 42; white privilege, 66–67, 233
Reay, Diane, 11, 217
reciprocity, 124–25, 130–33, 202, 228, 240, 270n5, 270n6
“redistributing” wealth, 152–53
religion, 91–92; Protestant ethic, 7–8, 22–23, 260n17; religiosity of interviewees, 15
research design, 240–42
respect: for money, 128; for others, 22, 131–33, 198, 200, 231
retirement, 29, 68–69, 107, 233
the rich: judgement of, 8–10, 13, 20–21, 25–28, 44, 104, 121, 232, 233, 256–58; media representation of, 8–9, 13, 254; “old money” elites, 12, 14–15, 252, 271n14
risk, financial, 68–70, 151–52, 188
Rivera, Lauren, 14, 261n29, 276n5
Rowling, J. K., 230
sampling: characteristics of sample, 14–15, 242, 245–47, 266n1, 272n6; “noncore” sample, 264n53; recruitment of interviewees, 14, 242–45; “snowball” method, 243
Sanders, Bernie, 11, 236
savings, 29, 68–69, 165–66, 245; and financial provision for children, 29, 107, 186, 197
scarcity, 149–50, 157, 177–78, 181, 195–96
schools, choice of public vs. private, 5, 20, 102–3, 208, 214, 217–22, 221, 261n29
self-indulgence, 5, 22, 76–81, 89, 101–2, 117
service economy, 6
service providers: as source of information, 17–18, 247–48
shame. See discomfort with wealth
Shenker-Osoria, Anat, 259n16
Silver, Ira, 271n21
social networks of interviewees, 26, 32, 44
Social Register, 12, 262n34
social welfare programs, 6, 29, 64, 149–50, 152, 234
spending: as demonstration of entitlement, 176; exceptional, 170 (see treats (self-indulgent consumption)); family of origin and attitudes regarding, 36, 158; as gendered activity, 99–101, 170; marital conflict linked to, 158, 164–66, 171, 175–76, 178–79; price consciousness or bargain hunting, 51, 97–98, 108, 168, 273n11; renovation as practice, 120; styles, 36, 108, 158–59, 164–66, 171; worries over everyday, 107–8. See also prudence, financial
spending styles, 36, 108, 158–59, 164–66, 171, 175
status competition, 8, 24–25, 38, 115–17, 120–21, 253
stay-at-home parents: choice to leave employment, 15, 23–24, 76–77; and discomfort about wealth, 60–61, 82, 84–85, 173–74; and entitlement to marital wealth, 158, 175 (see also unpaid labor under this heading); and “labor of lifestyle,” 61, 78–85, 159, 194; men as, 88; parenting as morally worthy labor, 61, 79, 81–82; as philanthropy or volunteering, 138–40; and unpaid labor as contribution, 24, 61, 63, 78–85, 163–65, 175, 194
stereotypes of the rich and the poor, 8–10, 22, 27, 63–64, 104, 121, 233, 256–57
Stewart, James B., 230
structural disadvantage: blaming the poor for their poverty, 66, 234; conflated with “luck,” 60, 90; and “giving back,” 125–26, 149–51; racism and, 67. See also inequality
Swidler, Ann, 241
symbolic boundaries: and self-identification, 60–61, 74, 81, 83, 131, 204; against talk of money, 5–6, 18–22, 40–41, 50–51, 130–34, 215, 240, 251, 258, 265; against visible display of wealth, 93–94, 103, 120
“symbolic deprivation,” 227–28, 275n11
talk of money: symbolic boundary against, 5–6, 18–22, 40–41, 50–51, 130–34, 215, 240, 251, 258, 265
taxes, 32, 43, 123, 146–49, 186, 233, 234, 271n19
The Theory of the Leisure Class (Veblen), 8
travel: consumption choices, 1, 101–2, 207–8; and exposure to cultural difference, 216–17
treats (self-indulgent consumption), 101, 111–13, 120, 155, 201, 205, 208–10, 231
Trump, Donald, 11
trust funds, 107, 186, 197
unpaid labor: as contribution, 24, 61, 81–82, 86–91, 157–60, 163–65; devaluation of, 56, 60–61, 79, 82, 89–91, 156–59, 175; as gendered, 61, 156, 194; legitimation of, 84–85, 159–60, 163–65; and marital conflict, 61, 89, 171, 194; as morally worthy work, 24, 157–58; paid labor and facilitation of, 86–88, 155–56; parenting as morally worthy work, 61, 79, 81–82; as productivity, 80, 86, 159; symbolic value of, 24, 89; and time as resource, 171–72, 171–75. See also stay-at-home parents
upper class, 10–12, 20, 263n51; defined, 262n33, 263n48, 276n5; gender roles in, 20, 78. See also elites; “one percenters”
upward mobility, 7, 11, 25–26, 31, 42, 53, 85, 220, 230; and privilege, 47, 51
upward orientation, 21, 23, 56–57; consumption choices and, 117–18; financial insecurity and anxiety, 30, 38; and homogeneity of social networks, 44; and identification with “the middle,” 32–44; and inequality as natural and inevitable, 52; and privilege, 28–32
Veblen, Thorstein, 8, 260n19
volunteering, 93, 122, 124–26, 135–40, 212, 231, 273n14; deferral of, 139, 145; and gender roles, 12, 136–37; marital conflict linked to, 171, 177; as part of “labor of lifestyle,” 12, 79, 83; as public display, 125, 140
Wall Street, 13, 43
waste as moral issue, 5, 108–9
Weber, Max, 260n17
Women of the Upper Class (Ostrander), 12
work: American Dream and hard work as a value, 5–10, 12, 22, 59–61, 62–63, 70–71; children and chores or employment, 198, 222–27; consumption as labor (consumption work), 17, 61, 79, 159–60, 163, 168–71, 194; employment opportunities as privilege, 64, 73, 261n29; gendered spheres of, 61, 136–37, 156, 194; guilt as motivation for, 73–74; and identity or self-validation, 22, 60–61, 66–67, 70–71, 72, 85, 90, 168, 235; and independence or self-reliance, 22, 58–59, 62–63, 66, 71–74, 81, 86, 176, 181 (see also provider role under this heading); interviewees, employment of, 15; job loss as source of financial anxiety, 22, 98, 179, 192, 233–34; “labor of lifestyle” as legitimate, 61, 159, 169–70, 194; laziness, stereotypes of, 63–64, 80–81, 234; and legitimate entitlement, 209–10; and legitimate privilege, 25–27, 60, 261n29; and legitimation of wealth, 9–10, 58–63, 70–71, 74–76, 81, 83, 90, 127, 146, 157, 159, 196, 223–24, 234, 267n3; moral worth of, 8–10, 22–24, 32, 60–67, 72, 121, 157–58, 227, 230, 231; for nonprofits, 15, 72, 93, 124, 129, 140, 143; as “normal,” 73, 121; productivity as value, 22–23; and “provider” role within family, 67–68, 159–60, 160–61, 189–93, 194–95; symbolic value of, 61, 73–74, 82, 85, 267n3; taxes as disincentive, 146–47; unpaid (see unpaid labor); and upward mobility, 62–63
work ethic: children and, 59, 198, 201–3, 222–27; Protestant ethic, 7–8, 22–23, 260n17
working class, 31, 47, 53, 259n15, 259n16, 261n13; contrasted with middle class and “upper class,” 262n33; and discomfort with wealth, 50–51; identification with, 47, 50–51, 53, 62–63. See also upward mobility
Zelizer, Viviana, 193