retreat of Communist parties, 413–15
revolutions of 1989 in, 545
show trials and purges, 289–90
USSR seen as imperialist, 288–9
see also individual countries
Ebert, Friedrich, 107, 118
economic crisis 1928–9, 130, 187–9
economic reforms
China, 504–8
German Democratic Republic (GDR), 421–2
Hungary, 422–3
impact of in Yugoslavia, 423–4
in pro-Soviet states, 526–7
USSR, 421, 422
see also neo-liberalism
economies
based on wishful thinking, 148
financial crisis 2008–9, xvi
French, after the revolution, 11
Economist on Soviet expansion, 500
education
ideological division based on, 513–14
impact of Cultural Revolution, 362
International Lenin School for Western Communists, 125–6
opportunities for workers, 169–70
purges in, 144–5
Ehrenburg, Ilya, 341
Eisenhower, Dwight, 325
Eisenstein, Sergei, 132–4, 157–8, 161, 180–81
End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama), 558
End of St Petersburg (Pudovkin), 61–2
Engels, Friedrich, 26–7, 36, 39–40, 41, 53
Estonia, 548
Ethiopia
affinity with Russia, 481
Derg, 483, 484, 485
divisions within Marxism, 485
fall of Selassie, 482–3
land reform, 484–5
Marxism influence from the West, 482
protests at fashion show, 452–3
Selassie’s regime, 481–2
separatist movements, 485–6
Stalinist strategies, 485–6
student movement, 482
ethnic nationalism in Romania, 407–8
Eurocommunism, 497–9
Europe
anti-Communist crusade, 231
Communism in the mid-1920s, 104
Communist purism, emergence of, 122
ebbing of revolutionary tide in, 123
failure of revolution in, 119–20
opposition to Vietnam War, 460–61
popular backlash against First World War, 106
see also Eastern Europe; individual countries
expositions
imagined, after Second World War, 211
in Paris 1937, 182–4
Ezhov, Nikolai, 176, 180
factory conditions in USSR after Second World War, 279–80
fall of Communism, xv–xvi
families, Stalinist policies towards, 171
famine, 153–4
fashion
in China, 301–2
show in Ethiopia, 452–3
Fatah, 471
February revolution, 82–3
Festival of the Unity and Indivisibility of the Republic, 1–2, 10
festivals
in Italy, 338
in the USSR, 275
financial crises, xvi, 523–7
Finland, Communist Party in, 293
First International, 41–2
First Solidarity Conference of the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America, 469
First World War
impact on ordinary people, 105–6
impact on Russia, 81
impact on Social Democrat parties, 105
popular backlash against, 106
as weakening old hierarchies, 236
Fischer, Ruth, 121
Five-Year Plans
China: First, 299; initial discussions, 298
USSR: First, 148, 155–6; as imperialist projects, 288; Second, 156
Fourier, Charles, 18, 20–21, 28
Fourth International, 201–2
Fowler, Dona, 453
France
1948 revolution, 35–6
Communist Party in, 292–31
decline of Communism, 498
differing forms of socialism in, 45
end of bourgeois/worker alliance, 32–3
Eurocommunism, 497
at Paris exposition 1937, 184
Popular Front crisis, 199–200
Popular Front in, 192–3
reaction to Secret Speech, 337
silk-workers uprising in Lyon, 32–3
worker unrest, 466–7
see also French revolution
Free Speech Movement, 455
FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique), 393, 397, 398, 472–3, 478–9
French revolution
arms manufacturing after, 11
army under the Jacobins, 9–12
attack on estates system, 3
Battle of Valmy, 11
classical republicanism as inspiration, 4–5
economy following, 11
Festival of the Unity and Indivisibility of the Republic, 1–2, 10
Great Terror, 13–14
liberal capitalist vision, 4
persecution of ‘counter-revolutionaries’, 12–14
removal of Ancien Régime, 3–4
Revolutionary Armies, abolition of, 12
Rousseau as influence, 5–7
sans-culottes, 8, 9
Freston, Tom, 558–9
Friedman, Milton, 521
Friedman, Thomas, 557–8
friendship, importance of under Communist regimes, 442
Fu Sinian, 240
Fukuyama, Francis, xv, 558
Gandhi, Mohandas, 243–4
Gapon, Father, 77–8
Garson, Barbara, 456
Gastev, Aleksei, 94
Georghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 406
Georgia, Stalin’s background in, 135
German Democratic Republic (GDR)
1989 compared to previous revolutionary years, 546
breaching of the Berlin Wall, 544–5
demonstrations against regime in 1989, 544
dissidence, responses to, 511–13
economic reforms, 421–2
informants, 512–13
opinions on socialism in 1980s, 511
power of managers, 439
reforms dictated from Moscow, 331
Stasi secret police, 512–13
USSR deeply unpopular, 214
workers’ wages, 431
see also Germany
Germany
Communist party in, 128–9
division of, 226
expected revolution in, 92
failure of revolution in, 119
influence of Weitling, 19
January 1919
uprising, 118
Marxism in, 46
Nazi takeover in 1933, 189
pact with USSR 1939, 203
at Paris exposition 1937, 182–4
politics after 1917, 107
response to crisis of 1928–9, 188–9
revival of radical left in June 1920, 118
revolution attempt 1923, 124
uprisings in 1848–9, 36–7
see also German Democratic Republic (GDR); Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Germinal (Zola), 43–4
Gerö, Ernö, 334
Ginzburg, Evgenia, 177–8, 278–9
Gladkov, Fedor, 140–42
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 11
‘Going to the People’ movement 1874, Russia, 70
Gomuka, Wadysaw, 333–4, 427, 518
Gorbachev, Mikhail
alternative economic models faced by, 540–41
and attempted coup of 1991, 549
background, 534
character, 534–5
China visit 1989, 553–4
curtailment of party powers, 533–4
Czech contacts of, 428–9
economic liberalization, 536–8
; ideological crisis initiated by, 538–40
meeting with Deng Xiaoping 1989, 502
meeting with Reagan 1986, 501–2
motivation, 532, 533
reaction of Western leaders to, 534
theft of economy by officials, 541
Gramsci, Antonio, 111–12, 117, 208–9
Great Leap Forward, China, 353–7
Greece, civil war in, 217
Grenada, 547
Grosz, George, 105
Guatemala, 370, 371–2, 380–81, 391
guerrilla warfare
in China, 253–4
Naxalites in India, 568
peasant movements, 472–3
US’s use of against Communism, 528–31
Guerrilla Warfare (Guevara), 390
Guevara, Che
background, 371
Castro on, 381
character, 370–71
cult of, 402
death, 401
economics role in Cuba, 388–9
in Guatemala, 370, 371–2
reaction against Stalinism, 389
resigns Cuban offices, 389
tour of African nationalist states, 392–4
Guinea-Bissau, 473
Gulag system, 172–3, 278–9
Guomindang, 247–8, 265–6
Guzmán, Abimael, 566
Haile Selassie, 481–2
Hamlet, performance of in Budapest, 330
Haraszti, Miklós, 439, 442–3
Hayter, William, Sir, 326
Heine, Heinrich, 28
Hercules, statue of in Paris, 1–2
heroism, classical, 5, 6
hierarchies
in East European industry, 305–7
effect on women and families, 171
in North Korea, 410–11
in USSR, 158, 167
History and Class Consciousness (Lukács), 111
Ho Chi Minh, 234–6, 242–3
Hobsbawm, Eric, 195, 336–7
Honecker, Erich, 186–7, 422, 544
Horváth, Ágnes, 433–4, 441–2
How the Steel was Tempered (Ostrovskii), 164–5, 300
How the Steel was Tempered (TV series), 556
Hoxha, Enver, 408–9
Hu Jintao, 562
Hungary
1989 compared to previous revolutionary years, 546
anti-imperialist feelings, 330–31
attitudes in 1980s, 510–11
economic reforms, 422–3
Hamlet, performance of in Budapest, 330
ideological division based on education, 514
leadership instability, 332
Lenin on failure of soviet republic, 121–2
multi-party elections, 543
Popular Front, 213, 215–16
power of managers, 439
radical Marxism, failure of, 115–17
reduced controls at Austrian border, 544
research on party officials, 433–5
revolution, 334–6
soviet government of March 1919, 107–8
wages in compared to US, 438–9
workforce dissatisfaction, 308–9
I Chose Freedom (Kravchenko), 147–8, 293
Iakovlev, Aleksandr, 533, 535, 538
imperialism
anti-movements, Communism as vehicle for, 236–7
anti-imperialist aid from USSR, 375–6
Bandung conference as anti-, 374–5
Lenin on, 79–80
Marxist responses to, 58–9
of the US, 379–80
of the USSR, 273–5, 288–9
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (Lenin), 79–80
India
difficulties embedding Marxism, 243
Naxalite guerrillas, 568
tension between left nationalists and Communists, 377
Indonesia, 271, 400
industrial revolution, second, 42–3
industrialization, 150–51
inefficiency after Russian revolution, 98
inequalities
anger at, 443–4
in China, 563
in East European industry, 305–7
informants, use of in GDR, 512–13
intellectuals, 168–9
and Communism, 109–12
controlled liberalization in China, 352–3
disillusion with Khrushchev, 347–8
as visitors to USSR in 1930s, 196–8
International Lenin School for Western Communists, 125–6
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 526, 550–52
Iran, Stalin’s policy towards, 233
Iraq, tension between left nationalists and Communists, 377
Islamism, xvi, 570
Israel, 282–3, 471
Italy
challenges in 1950s, 338–9
Communism 1919–20, 117
Communist Party in, 293–4
conflict between left and right, 496–7
Eurocommunism, 497
festivals, 338
response to de-Stalinization, 337
support for Christian Democrat government, 498
terrorism in, 466
Togliatti as Popular Front supporter, 208–9
worker unrest, 466
Ivan the Terrible Parts I and II (Eisenstein), 180–81
Jacobins, 2–3, 7, 14–15
army under, 9–12, 10–12
conflict with sans-culottes, 10
Marx on failure of, 17
outlook of, 8
persecution of ‘counter-revolutionaries’, 12–14, 15
January Storm, China, 366
Japan
Chinese campaigns against, 255–6
difficulties embedding Marxism, 243
invasion of China 1937, 261–2
Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 525
Jews, Soviet attitudes towards, 282–3
Jiangxi Soviet Republic, China, 253
Johnson, Lyndon, 399–400
Joke, The (Kundera), 284–5, 412
Julie or the New Héloise (Rousseau), 6
July 28: Liberty Leading the People, (Delacroix), 16–17
Kamemev, Lev, 142, 176
Kanatchikov, Semen, 64, 65, 66
Kautskian Marxism, 73