signs of emotion, 43
violent, 111
Birth and emotions, 43
D
Blind elephant, 48
Darwinian approach, 3
Blombos Cave, 76, 77 f
Darwinian evolution, 5
Body language, 42–43, 42 f, 44–45
Death, 50
Bull elephant, 10
of Eleanor, 51, 52–53
and emotions, 43
Decision-making ability, 35
C
Deductive reasoning, 94–95
Calf, 37, 38, 38 f
Deep-seated memory, 106
mother and, 20 f, 23 f, 75
Defensive calls, 73
Calling area, 65
Depression, interpreting signs of, 44
Calling range, 55, 64–66
Desert elephants, 1, 2 f
129
130 Index
Destruction of elephants, 107
Elephant’s trunk, 4 f, 11–12, 12 f
Distribution and population, in Africa, 112 f
sense of smell, 11 f, 12–13
Drawing, 76–77, 77 f
strength of, 11 f
versatility of, 4 f
E
Emotions, 27
animals motivate by, 41–42
Ear structure, 59–60, 60 f
behavioral signs of, 43
Earth’s low-level seismic noise, 16
birth and, 43
Eavesdropping, 73
conditions for, 29
Eleanor, 51, 52
death and, 43
Elephant calls
and morality, 29–30
range of, 64–66, 64 f, 66 f
play and, 44
times and frequency of, 66–69, 67 f
recognition of, 43
Elephant evolution, 3, 7 f
recognize in humans, 44
Darwinian evolution, 5
in vocalizations, 43
forest environment, 6–8
vocal output, 43
mind, 8
Empathy, 47
natural selection, 5
Amboseli study, 49
olfactory sensors, 8
Bates study, 49
proboscideans, 6
Encephalization quotient (EQ), 9–10
Richard Dawkins, 5–6
Endemic diseases, 108–109
sound and smell, 8
Episodic memory. See Explicit memory
sound waves, 6–8
Estrous calls, 73–75
temperature, 6–8
Etosha National Park (ENP), 24, 36, 49–50,
Elephant-human relationships, 3, 4
51–52, 88
Elephant matriarchs, 22, 22 f, 28, 88–89
Evolutionary parsimony, 30
Elephant memory. See Memory
Exceptional memory, 19
Elephant navigation, 1
Explicit memory, 19
Elephant neural capacity, 3
Eye, 15
Elephant sanctuary, 11, 23
Elephant’s brain, 41
cerebellum, 12
F
as complex interactive organ, 15
Family unit, bond groups and populations,
complexity, 9
20, 20 f, 21 f
encephalization quotient, 9–10
Fast Field Program (FFP), 64
features of, 13
Fission–fusion (fluid movement), 20, 21 f, 32
hippocampus, 13
Forest environment, elephant evolution in, 6–8
and human brain, 9–10, 15
intelligence, 9–10
G
“loopy brain”, 16–17
Genetic control, 5–6
memory, 13
Good Natured: The Origins of Right and
mental control, 11–12
Wrong in Humans and Other Animals
neural signals, 15, 16–17
(deWaal), 27–28
newborn elephant, 15
Gradualism, 30
olfactory region, 12–13
olfactory sensors, 10
overview, 13
H
physiological aspects of, 3
Hearing mechanism, 59–60, 62, 64–65, 71
reductionist approach, 9
Herd of elephants, 33–34, 36, 49–50, 68,
sense of smell, 10, 11–13
83–84, 88
sense of vision, 13
High-frequency sound, 63
size, 9–10
Hippocampus, 13, 19
temporal–parietal junction, 12
Hluhluwe Game Reserve, 87
Index 131
Home territory, 100
Learning
Human cognitive systems, 103
crop-raiding, 92
Human deaths, by elephants, 115 t
experiment, 94–95
Human population growth, 116
by imitation, 91
Hyperthymestic syndrome, 19
social, 91
through observing, 91–92
I
vocal, 93–94
Limpopo National Park, 113 f
Idiosyncratic calls, 73, 74 t
Long-term memory skills, 22, 23 f, 24
Indian elephants, 23–24
Loss of habitat, 109
Infrasound, 12–13, 61, 69
Low-frequency sound, 63, 67 f, 70, 109–110
Initiated calls, 73, 74 t
Low-level noise, 16
Instinctual behavior, 91
Luiana Partial Reserve, 1–3
Intelligence, 9–10
behavior and, 83
definition, 79
M
experiment and, 80, 81–82, 86–87, 88
Mapping skills, 24
hearing the approach, 80
Mating, 43
learned behavior, 79, 80
Mating-pandemonium, 43
learning and, 89
Matriarchs, 22, 22 f, 28, 88–89
level of, 79, 81
Medial temporal cortex, 19
making tools, 85
Mega-gardeners, 10
navigation and, 89
Memory, 3, 13, 17, 103–104
reciprocity and cooperation, 87–88
amygdala and, 19
rehabilitation facility, 89–90
caudate regulation and, 19
social interactions and, 87
consolidation, 19, 20
social skills, 81
determination, 22
solving problems, 79, 90
evolution, 24–25
sound-pressure level and, 88–89
exceptional, 19
task, 81
explicit, 19
threat and, 88–89
hippocampus and, 19
using tools, 82, 83, 84–86
and human memory, 24–25
vocalization and, 87–88
long-term, 22, 23 f, 24
Interaural level differences, 61
medial temporal cortex and, 19
Interaural time differences (ITDs), 61
remembering critical events, 19
semantic, 19
spatial recall, 24–25
superior autobiographical, 19
Justice cluster, 40
Mind, elephant, 41
Mirror test, 50, 53
K
Moral continuity, 30
Kruger National Park (KNP), 36–37, 84–85,
Morality, 29
89–90, 108–110, 113 f, 114 f
behavior, 39, 40
definition, 28
determination of, 40
L
elucidation of, 29
Language, 73, 76
emergence of, 30–31
and communication, 91
emotions and, 29
Laryngeal calls, 73, 74 t
evolutionary roots of, 39–40
Larynx, 86
Richard Dawkins, 27
and sound generation, 56, 57
rules governing, 39
Leadership, 47
social bonds and, 35, 40
Learned behavior, intelligence and, 79, 80
Moral kinship hypothesis, 29
132 Index
Moral theory, 42
S
Motor control, 10–11
Salonga National Park, 10
Multiple sensory inputs, 16–17, 24, 100
Sanctuaries, 107, 111
Savanna elephants, 10
N
Savannas, 8
Namib Desert, 1
Seismic noise, 16
Natural selection, elephant evolution, 5
earth’s low-level, 16
Nature, 41
Seismic signal, 16
vs. nurture, 27
Self-awareness, 50
Neural intervention, 43
Self-image, 50
Neural signals, elephant’s brain, 15, 16–17
Selfishness, 27
Normal modes, frequency, 57–58
ruthless, 27
North Luangwa National Park, 107
Self-recognition, 48, 50
Nurture, 41
Semantic memory, 19
vs. nature, 27
Sense of vision, 13
Sensitive olfactory, and chemical detection, 23–24
Sensors, olfactory, 10
O
Sensory environment, 100
Olfaction, and chemical communication, 22
Sensory inputs, 97, 100
Olfactory sensors, 8, 10
with internal expectations, 16–17
Olfactory signals, 24
multiple, 16–17
Optimism, 9
Sensory signals, 16–17, 97
Orphan elephants, 44, 100
Sensory systems, 99, 103–104
Ossicles, 60
Short-term memory, 22, 23 f
Smell, sense of, 10, 11–13
P
Social disruption, 107
Pacinian corpuscles, 16
Social framework elephants, 38
Painting, 76–77, 77
Social herbivore, 109
f
Parental care, 47
Social interactions, and intelligence, 87
Pharyngeal pouch, 57, 58
Social learning, 91
f, 86
Pheromone, 97
Social skills, 34
Pilanesberg elephants, 35
intelligence, 81
Pilanesberg National Park, 34, 36–37
Social systems, 41
Play, and emotions, 44
Playback calls, 34
Sound
social categories of, 35
frequency of, 73–75
Poaching, 116
sources of, 74 t
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 110–111
Sound detection, 59–61, 60 f
Proboscideans, 6
Sound generation, 56–59
Profound paradox, 35
formants and, 58–59
Protection, in mothers and allomothers, 48–49
fundamental frequency, 56
larynx, 56, 57
pharyngeal pouch, 57, 58 f
R
sound pressure levels, 57
Rational behavior, 76
source and filter, 56
Recall individuals, 20
speed of sound, 57–58
Reductionist approach, 9
vestibular folds, 57
Remembering critical events, 19
vocal folds, 56, 59
Resonances, frequency, 57–58
vocal tract, 56, 57–59, 57 f
Response to calls, 75, 76
Sound location, 61–62
Rumble calls, 73
frequency sounds, 61
Ruthless selfishness, 27
ITDs, 61
Index 133
Sound pressure level (SPL), 63, 88–89
Tsavo National Park, 100
Sound waves, 6–8
Turbulent motions, in atmosphere, 64–65
mother and calf, 23 f
Tympanic membrane, 59–60
South African Parks authorities, 36–37
Spatial memory, 103–104
U
Spatial recall, 24–25
Unconscious brain, 15, 16–17, 103
SPL. See Sound pressure level (SPL)
Unconscious signals, 97
Superior autobiographical memory, 19
Unweaving the Rainbow, 27
Surface temperatures, 8
Sustainability, 108
Symbolic thought, 76
V
Synesthesia, 16–17
Vestibular folds and sound generation, 57
Violence, humans to elephants, 110
T
Violent behavior, 111
Vision, 22
Teaching, 91
Vocal folds and sound generation, 56, 59
failure to observe, 92–93
Vocalization types, 73
Temperature inversion, 6–8
Vocal learning, 93–94
Temporal–parietal junction, elephant’s
Vocal tract, sound generation, 56, 57–59, 57 f
brain, 12
Vomeronasal organ, 23–24
The Bonobo and the Atheist (de Waal), 28
The Expressions of Emotions in Man and
Animals (Darwin), 42–43
W
Thermocline, 6–8
Walking Thunder (Christo and Wilkinson), 70
Trauma, 110–111
Washington National Zoo, 94
Trunk calls, 73, 74 t
Wind-driven refraction of sound, 64–65
Document Outline
Title Page
An Elephant’s Brain
Morality
Empathy and Altruism
Communication
Language
Intelligence
Learning and Teaching
The Sensory Environment of Elephants
Them and Us