ity traits of leadership and social integration. J. Comp. Physiol. 126, 224–232.
Lee, P.C., Poole, J., 2011. Reproductive strategies and social relationships. Part 4. In: Moss, C.J.,
Croze, H., Lee, P.L. (Eds.), The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-
Lived Mammal. Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 187–291.
Lee, S.W., et al., 1986. Impedance formulation of the fast field program for acoustic wave propaga-
tion in the atmosphere. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 79, 628–634.
Leggett, K.E.A., et al., 2011. Matriarchal associations and reproduction in a remnant sub-population
of desert dwelling elephants in Namibia. Pachyderm 49, 20–32.
Leong, K.M., Ortolani, A., Burks, K.D., Mellen, J.D., Savage, A., 2003. Quantifying acoustic and
temporal characteristics of vocalizations for a group of captive African elephants ( Loxodonta
africana). Bioacoustics 13, 213–231.
LePort, A.K., et al., 2012. Behavioral and neuroanatomical investigation of highly superior autobio-
graphical memory (HSAM). Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 96, 78–92.
Levenson, R.W., 2003. Blood, sweat and fears: the autonomic architecture of emotion. Ann. N.Y.
Acad. Sci. 1000, 348–366.
Lindeque, M., Lindeque, P.M., 1991. Satellite tracking of elephants in northwestern Namibia. Afr.
J. Ecol. 29, 196–206.
Lister, A.M., 2013. The role of behavior in adaptive morphological evolution of African probosci-
deans. Nature 500, 331–334.
London Daily Telegraph, 2012. Elephant whisperer saved Baghdad zoo. London Daily Telegraph (March 13). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9131585/Lawrence-Anthony.html.
Long, G.R., 1994. Psychoacoustics. In: Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. (Eds.), Comparative Hearing:
Mammals. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 18–56.
Masson, J.M., McCarthy, S., 1995. When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals. Dela-
corte Press Bantam Doubleday Dell Pub. Group Inc., New York, 291 p.
McCarthy, T., Rubidge, B., 2005. The Story of Earth & Life: A Southern African Perspective on a
4.6-Billion-Year Journey. Random House Struik, Cape Town, 335 p.
McComb, K.E., 1991. Female choice for high roaring rate in red deer, Cervus elaphus. Anim.
Behav. 41, 79–88.
McComb, K., et al., 2000. Unusually extensive networks of vocal recognition in African elephants.
Anim. Behav. 59, 1103–1109.
McComb, K., et al., 2001. Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge in African elephants.
Science 292, 491–494.
McComb, K., et al., 2011. Leadership in elephants: the adaptive value of age. P. Roy. Soc. B Bio.
278, 3270–3276.
McComb, K., et al., 2003. Long distance communication of acoustic cues to social identity in
African elephants. Anim. Behav. 65, 317–329.
McGaugh, J.L., 2003. Memory and Emotion: The Making of Lasting Memories. Columbia Univer-
sity Press, New York, 162 p.
References 123
Mendoza, S.P., Ruys, J.D., 2001. The beginning of an alternative view of the neurobiology of emo-
tion. Soc. Sci. Inform. 40, 39–60.
Moss, C.J., 1988. Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. Ballentine
Books, New York, 335 p.
Moss, C., Lee, P., 2011. Female social dynamics: fidelity and flexibility. In: Moss, C.J., Croze, H.,
Lee, P. (Eds.), The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Animal.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 205–208 (chapter 13).
Mutwa, V.C., 1965. Indaba My Children. Blue Crane Books, Johannesburg, 562 p.
Myhrvold, C.L., et al., 2012. What is the use of elephant hair. PLoS One 7, e47018.
Nicol, C., 2013. Do elephants have souls? The New Atlantis. J. Tech. Soc. 38, 10–70.
O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., et al., 2000. Seismic properties of Asian elephant ( Elephas maximum)
vocalizations and locomotion. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 108, 3066–3072.
O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., et al., 2001. Exploring the potential use of seismic waves as a communi-
cation channel by elephants and other large mammals. Am. Zool. 41, 1157–1170.
O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., et al., 2004. Interactive patterns of vocal communication in African el-
ephant herds. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115, 2555.
O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., et al., 2007. Wild African elephants ( Loxodonta africana) discriminate
between familiar and unfamiliar conspecific seismic alarm calls. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 122,
823–830.
O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., et al., 2012. Antiphonal vocal bouts associated with departures in free-
ranging African elephant family groups ( Loxodonta africana). Bioacoustics 21, 215–224.
Owings, D.H., Morton, E.S., 1997. The role of information in communication on assessment/
management approach. In: Owings, D.H., Beecher, M.D., Thompson, N.S. (Eds.), Perspectives
in Ethology, Vol. 12: Communication. Plenum, New York, pp. 359–390.
Owings, D.H., Morton, E.S., 1998. Animal Vocal Communication: A New Approach. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 284 p.
Palmer, A.R., 2004. Reassessing mechanisms of low-frequency sound localization. Curr. Opin.
Parker, E.S., et al., 2006. A case of unusual autobiographical remembering. Neurocase 12, 35–49.
Patterson, G., 2009. The Secret Elephants: The Rediscovery of the World’s Southerly Elephants.
Penguin Books, Johannesburg, 218 p.
Payne, K., 1998. Silent Thunder: In the Presence of Elephants. Simon and Schuster, New York,
p. 288.
Peterson, D., 2011. The Moral Lives of Animals. Bloomsbury Press, New York, 342 p.
Pierce, A.D., 1981. Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications.
McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 61.
Pijanowski, B.C., et al., 2011. Soundscape ecology: the science of sound in the landscape. Biosci-
ence 61, 203–216.
Plotnik, J.M., et al., 2011. Elephants know when they need a helping trunk in a cooperative task.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 5116–5121.
Poole, J.H., 1996. Coming of Age with Elephants. Hyperion, New York, 288 p.
Poole, J.H., 2011. Behavioral contexts of elephant acoustic communication. In: Moss, C.J., Croze,
H., Lee, P. (Eds.), The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mam-
mal. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 125–161 (chapter 9).
Poole, J.H., Granli, P., 2004. The visual, tactile and acoustic signals of play in African savanna elephants. Elephant Voices & Amboseli Research Project Report, 1–7.
Poole, J.H., et al., 1988. The social context of some very low-frequency calls of African elephants.
Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 22, 385–392.
124 References
Poole, J., et al., 2006. Vocal imitation in African savannah elephants ( Loxodonta africana).
Razprave IV Razreda Sazu X LVII-3, 117–124.
Raspet, R., et al., 1985. A fast field program for sound propagation in a layered atmosphere above
an impedance ground. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 77, 345–352.
Reby, D., McComb, K., 2003. Anatomical constraints generate honesty: acoustic cues to age and
weight in roars of red deer stags. Anim. Behav. 65, 519–530.
Regan, T., 2004. The Case for Animal Rights. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles,
425 p.
Rendall, D., 1996. Social communication and vocal recognition in free-ranging rhesus monkeys ( Macaca mulatta). PhD dissertation, University of California.
Riede, T., Fitch, W.
T., 1999. Vocal tract length and acoustics of vocalization in the domestic dog,
Canis familiaris. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 2859–2869.
Roderigues, J., 1992. The Game Rangers. J.A. Roderigues, Innesdale, South Africa, 215 p.
Rosowski, J.J., 1994. Outer and middle ears. In: Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. (Eds.), Comparative Hear-
ing: Mammals. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 172–247.
Rowlands, M., 2012. Can Animals Be Moral. Oxford University Press, New York, 259 p.
Scholes, R.J., Mennell, K.G. (Eds.), 2008. Elephant Management: A Scientific Assessment for
South Africa. Wits University Press, Johannesburg, 586 p.
Seyfarth, R.M., Cheney, D.L., 2003a. Meaning and emotion in animal vocalization. Ann. N.Y.
Acad. Sci. 1000, 32–55.
Seyfarth, R.M., Cheney, D.L., 2003b. Signalers and receivers in animal communication. Annu. Rev.
Psychol. 54, 145–173.
Seyfarth, R.M., et al., 2010. The central importance of information in studies of animal communica-
tion. Anim. Behav. 80, 3–8.
Shannon, G., et al., 2013. Effects of social disruption in elephants persist decades after culling.
Front. Zool. 10, 62.
Sheldrick, D., 2012. Love, Life and Elephants: An African Story. Farrar Straus and Giroux Publish-
ers, New York, 334 p.
Shoshani, J., 2002. Proboscidea (elephants). In: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Nature Publishing Group.
Shoshani, J., et al., 2006. Elephant brain. Part I: gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy
and evolution. Brain Res. Bull. 70, 124–127.
Smet, A.F., Byrne, R.W., 2013. African elephants can use human pointing cues to find hidden food.
Curr. Biol. 23, 2033–2037.
Soltis, J., 2010. Vocal communication in African elephants ( Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biol. 29,
192–209.
Soltis, J., 2013. Emotional communication in African elephants. In: Altenmüller, E., Schmidt, S.,
Zimmerman, E. (Eds.), The Evolution of Emotional Communication. Oxford University Press,
New York, NY, pp. 106–115 (chapter 7).
Southworth, M., 1969. The sonic environment of cities. Environ. Behav. 1, 49–70.
Stander, P.E., Stander, J., 1988. Characteristics of lion roars in Etosha National Park. Madoqua 13,
315–318.
Stevenson-Hamilton, J., 1993. South African Eden. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, 336 p.
Stoeger, A.S., et al., 2012. An Asian elephant imitates human speech. Curr. Biol. 22, 2144–2148.
Thornton, A., Raihani, J.J., 2008. The evolution of teaching. Anim. Behav. 75, 1823–1836.
Titze, I., 1994. Principles of Voice Production. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Tyson, P.D., 1986. Climatic Changes and Variability in Southern Africa. Oxford University Press,
Cape Town.
References 125
van Garde, R.J., 2009. Elephants: Facts and Fables. International Fund for Animal Welfare RPT, Cape Town, South Africa. www.ifaw.org.
von Békésy, G., 1960. Experiments in Hearing. McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 745 (translated and
edited by E.G. Werer).
Watson, L., 2003. Elephantoms: Tracking the Elephant. Penguin Books, South Africa, Struik
Publishers, 256 p. (first published 2002, W.W. Norton and Co., New York).
Weissenböck, N.M., et al., 2012. Taking the heat: thermoregulation in Asian elephants under differ-
ent climatic conditions. J. Comp. Physiol. B 182, 311–319.
Weissenböck, N.M., et al., 2010. Thermal windows on the body surface of African elephants ( Lox-
odonta africana) studied by infrared thermography. J. Therm. Biol. 35, 182–188.
Willmer, P., et al., 2000. Environmental Physiology of Animals. Blackwell, Oxford, p. 644.
Wilson, M.L., et al., 2001. Does participation in intergroup conflict depend on numerical assess-
ment, range location or rank for wild chimpanzees? Anim. Behav. 61, 1203–1216.
Wittemyer, G., et al., 2005. The socioecology of elephants: analysis of the processes creating mul-
titiered social structures. Anim. Behav. 69, 1357–1371.
Wittemyer, G., et al., 2009. Where sociality and relatedness diverge: the genetic basis for hierarchi-
cal social organization in African elephants. Proc. Biol. Sci. 276, 3513–3521.
Wynn, K., 2008. Some innate foundations of social and moral cognition. In: Carruthers, P., Lau-
rence, S., Stich, S. (Eds.), The Innate Mind: Foundations and Future. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, pp. 330–347.
Supplemental Bibliography
Research in elephant behavior is progressing rapidly. Papers and reports pub-
lished since completing the text and of interest to the work are listed below but
not cited in the text.
COMMUNICATION
Partan, S.R., 2013. Ten unanswered questions in multimodal communication. Behav. Ecol. Socio-
biol. 67, 1523–1539.
Stoeger, A.S., de Silva, S., 2014. African and Asian elephant vocal communication: a cross-species
comparison. In: Witzany, G. (Ed.), Biocommunication of Animals. Springer Science, Dor-
drecht, pp. 21–39 (chapter 3).
Stoeger, A.S., Zeppelzauer, M., Baotic, A., 2014. Age-group estimation in free-ranging African
elephants based on acoustic cues of low-frequency rumbles. Bioacoustics 23, 231–246.
Zeppelzauer, M., Hensman, S., Stoeger, A.S., 2014. Towards an automated acoustic detection system
for free-ranging elephants. Bioacoustics 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09524622.2014.906321.
BEHAVIOR
de Silva, S., 2014. How does empathy help elephants? http://asianelephant.wordpress.com/2014/03/03/
how-does-empathy-help-elephants/.
King, L.E., 2013. Elephants and bees. Sanctuary Asia (October). http://www.sanctuaryasia.com/
ConflictResolution.
King, L.E., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Vollrath, F., 2011. Beehive fences as effective deterrents for crop-
raiding elephants: field trials in northern Kenya. Afr. J. Ecol. 49, 431–439.
Kuiper, T.R., Parker, D.M., 2014. Elephants in Africa: big, grey biodiversity thieves. S. Afr. J. Sci.
110, 7–9.
Landman, M., Kerley, G.I., 2014. Elephants both increase and decrease availability of browse
resources for black rhinoceros. Biotropica 46, 42–49.
Morell, V., 2014. It’s time to accept that elephants, like us, are empathetic beings. http://news.
nationalgeogrpahic.com/news/2014/02/140221-elephants-poaching-empathy-grief/.
Plotnik, J.M., de Waal, F.B.M., 2014. Asian elephants ( Elephas maximum) reassure others in dis-
tress. Peer J 2, e278.
Shannon, G., Slotow, R., Durant, S.M., Sayialel, K.N., Poole, J., Moss, C., McComb, K., 2013. Ef-
fects of social disruption in elephants persist decades after culling. Front. Zool. 10, 62.
Soltis, J., King, L.E., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Vollrath, F., Savage, A., 2014. African elephant alarm
calls distinguish between threats from humans and bees. PLoS One 9, e89403.
127
128 Supplemental Bibliography
INTELLIGENCE
Borenstein, S., 2014. Elephants prove discerning listeners of us humans. http://bigstory.ap.org/
article/elephants-prove-discerning-listeners-us-humans.
Jabr, F., 2014. Searching for the elephant’s genius inside the largest brain on land. Sci. Am. (Febr-uary). http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/2014/02/26/searching-for-the-elephants-
genius-inside-the-largest-brain-on-land/.
MOVEMENT
Barua, M., 2013. Circulating elephants: unpacking the geographies of a cosmopolitan animal.
Trans. Inst. British Geograph. 39, 559–573.
Jach
owski, D.S., Montgomery, R.A., Slotow, R., Millspaugh, J.J., 2013. Unravelling complex as-
1166–1175.
LEARNING
Stoeger, A.S., Manger, P., 2014. Vocal learning in elephants: neural bases and adaptive context.
Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 28, 101–107.
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures and t indicate tables.
A
Calling rate, 67, 68
Abiotic sounds, 69–72, 88, 100
Call types, 73, 74 t
Addo Elephant National Park, 75, 111,
Chemical communication, olfaction and, 22
112, 115 f
Chemical detection, sensitive olfactory and,
African savanna elephants (Loxodonta
23–24
africana), 1, 2 f, 10
Circuses, elephants in, 110
Agitation, 50–51
Click language, 76
Alarm calls, 43
Cognitive ability, 3, 55, 77 f
Altruism, 27, 48
Collective signals, 97
Amboseli Elephant Research Project, 114
Communication
Amboseli elephants, 35
abiotic sounds, 69–72
Amboseli National Park, 48, 87
high-frequency sound, 63
Amygdala, 19
and human language, 55
Angolan civil war, 1
individual recognition and, 55
Angola’s Luiana Partial Reserve, 1–3
language and, 91
Animals, Emotions and Morality: Marking the
listener’s behavior, 55
Boundary (Dixon), 29
low-frequency sound, 63, 67 f, 70
Askaris, 35–36, 36 f, 37 f
range of elephant calls, 64–66
Atmosphere, communication and, 62–64
role of the atmosphere, 62–64
Auditory system, 16
sound detection, 59–61, 60 f
sound generation, 56–59
sound location, 61–62
B
times and frequency of call, 66–69
Behavior
Compassion, 29
components of, 47
Conscious brain, 15, 17
instinctual, 91
Conscious signals, 97
and intelligence, 83
Contact calls, 35
morality, 39, 40
Contextual calls, 73, 74 t
patterns, 39
Cooperation cluster, 40
rational, 76
Corpuscles, pacinian, 16