3. Ibid., 112–113.
4. Tomanas, Chroniko, 131–132.
5. E. Counio-Amariglio, Peninta chronia meta … (1995), chapter 1.
6. Dimitriades, “Foinix Agiros,” 134–135.
7. Tomanas, Tavernes, 121–122.
8. Dimitriades, “Foinix Agiros,” 158–164.
9. Bunis, Voices from Jewish Salonika (Jerusalem, 1999), 45; 288–289.
10. E. Avdela, “Thessaloniki: o sosialismos ton ‘allon’ ”, Ta Istorika (June–Dec. 1993), 189; Dangas, Hafies, 73 n. 33.
11. Efimeris ton Valkanion, 29 May 1925.
12. N. Casey, IWM ms. 80/40/1, page 38. My thanks to Joanna Bourke for bringing this remarkable document to my attention.
13. Dimitriades, “Foinix Agiros,” 35–37.
14. IAM/GD V. Ellados, B/26/1: various documents.
15. G. Ioannou, Protevousa ton prosfygon, 15.
16. Efimeris ton Valkanion, 1 April 1925.
17. Efimeris ton Valkanion, 30 April 1925.
18. M. Vamvakaris, Avtoviografia, ed. A. Vellou-Kail (1978), 164–165.
19. “Litaneia.” In G. Holst, Road to Rembetika (Athens, 1975), 110–112. I have adapted the translation.
20. Dimitriades, “Foinix Agiros,” 87.
21. Bunis, Voices, 330.
22. Ibid., 294–297, 334–335.
23. Ibid., 278.
24. Ibid., 326, n.75.
25. Dimitriades, 87 seq.
26. Bunis, 117, 325.
27. Tomanas, Katoikoi, 130–131; Dimitriades, “Foinix Agiros” 143–144.
21 / Greeks and Jews
1. Bunis, Voices, 119.
2. E. Morin, Vidal et les siens (Paris, 1989), 87.
3. M. Levene, War, Jews and the New Europe: The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf, 1914–1919 (Oxford, 1992), 171–173.
4. Text in F. Constantopoulou and T. Veremis, eds., Documents on the History of Greek Jews (Athens, 1998), 103–110.
5. A. Nar, “I theatriki drastiriotita ton Evraion tis Thessalonikis mesa apo ta dimosievmata tou typou tous,” in his “Keimena epi aktis thalassas”: meletes kai arthra yia tin Evraiki Koinotita tis Thessalonikis (1997), 205.
6. Bunis, Voices, 120–121.
7. F. Constantopoulou and T. Veremis, eds., Documents, 127.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., 174.
10. S. Raphael, “The longing for Zion in Judeo-Spanish [Ladino] poetry,” M. Rozen, ed., The Jews in Turkey and the Balkans, 1808–1945 (Tel Aviv, 2002), 217.
11. M. Vassilikou, “Politics of the Jewish Community of Salonika in the Inter-War Years: Party Ideologies and Party Competition,” D. Phil. thesis, UCL (Oct. 1999), 158–159, has a good discussion; for 20,000 in Paris, see I. Skourtis, “Metanastefsi ton Evraion tis Thessalonikis sti Gallia,” Makedonika, 243; other figures in N. Abravanel, “Paris et le séphardisme ou l’affirmation sépharadiste à Paris dans les années trente,” in W. Busse, ed., Sephardica: Hommage à Haim Vidal Sephiha (Frankfurt, 1996), 497–523; see also Gennadios Library, Dragoumis Papers: 38:2 (General Directorate of Macedonia: Jews/Thessaloniki [1932–35]).
12. Gennadios Library, Dragoumis Papers: 38:2, memo from Press Office, 13 Dec. 1932.
13. Constantopoulou and Veremis, eds., Documents, 222–223; 231.
14. Vassilikou, 277–285; Bunis, Voices from Jewish Salonika, 271.
15. P. Dumont, “La correspondance du Joseph Nehama avec l’Alliance Israélite Universelle,” in Oi Evraioi ston Elliniko Horo (1995), 131–146; Vassilikou, 200–205.
16. B. Pierron, “Histoire des relations entre les Grecs et les Juifs de 1821 à 1945,” Thése de doctorat, INALCO, Paris, Oct. 1993, 598; K. Foundanopoulos, “I glossa tou syndikalismou: ta katastatika ton ergatikon somateion tis Thessalonikis (1914–1936),” Ta Istorika, 18–19 (June–Dec. 1993), 205–227.
17. Cited in G. Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece, 1922–1936 (California, 1983), 238–239.
18. Venizelos cited in Pierron, 569.
19. Pierron, 558–560.
20. G. Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic, 260.
21. Pierron, 574–575.
22. Avdela, “Thessaloniki: o socialismos ton ‘allon,’ ” 199–200.
23. Pierron, 668 seq.; P. Constantopoulou and T. Veremis, eds., Documents, 142.
24. Vassilikou, 96–98; text in Pierron, 688–689.
25. Pierron, 697.
26. Ibid., 716–718.
27. Ibid., 705.
28. See K. Tomanas, Oi katoikoi tia palias Thessalonikis, 48–50; Dim. Sfaellos archive, “EEE” file, ELIA; Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic, 258.
29. T. Tsironis, “I organosis Ethniki Enosis ‘I Ellas’ sti Thessaloniki tou mesopolemou (1927–1936),” Thessaloniki, 6 (2002).
30. Constantopoulou and Veremis, 175–192.
31. Articles in To Fos, 4 April 1933, and Le Progres, 3–4 April 1933.
32. G. Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic, 231.
33. On anti-Venizelist strategies, see G. Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic, 203–214.
34. D. Benbassat-Benby, “Haim ‘la sousta,’ ” L’Arche (Feb. 1998), 59.
35. A. Brouskou, “Evraies trofoi sto christianiko vrefokomio ‘Ayios Stylianos’ stis arches tou 200u aiona,” in Oi evraioi ston elliniko choro, 33–42; E. Counio-Amariglio and A. Nar, eds., Proforikes martyries evraion tis Thessalonikis yia to Olokavtoma (1998), 54; A. Dangas, Symvoli, 529–571.
36. A. Karathanassis, “The relations between the Jewish community and Metropolitan Gennadios of Thessaloniki (1912–1951),” in I. Hassiotis, ed., The Jewish Communities of Southeastern Europe from the 15th Century to the End of World War II (1997), 223–228; E. Counio-Amariglio and A. Nar, 188, 316.
37. F. Ambatzopoulou, “The image of the Jew in the literature of Salonika,” in P. Mackridge and E. Yannakakis, eds., The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912 (New York), 220–221.
22 / Genocide
1. Kentro Istorias Thessalonikis, Thessaloniki, 1917–1967: I taftotita tis polis mesa apo to Dimotiko Archeio (1995), 51; V. Gounaris and P. Papapoliviou, eds., O foros tou aimatos stin katochiki Thessaloniki: xeni kyriarchia-antistasi kai epiviosi (2001), 17.
2. E. Drosaki, En Thessaloniki … (1985), 44, 57.
3. H. V. Sephiha, “Dernier Pessah à Salonique (1942)” in Société des études juives, 465–470; Archives Diplomatiques, Nantes. Box 33 (Salonique): “Situation en Grèce du Nord,” 28 Oct. 1941.
4. FO 371/33175 R 610/281, “Conditions in Salonica,” 7 January 1942.
5. Monthly births and deaths from Red Cross sources in FO 371/42366 W13768/75, Mallet-London, 15 Sept. 1944; cf. the similar figures provided in Gounaris and Papapolyviou, eds., Foros tou aimatos, 138–141.
6. Rosenberg-Bormann, 23 April 1941 in FO 645, box 303/USA-371 [IWM]. M. Molho, In Memoriam: Hommage aux Victimes Juives des Nazis en Grèce (1973), 67.
7. M. Molho, In Memoriam: 47–51; Bundesarchiv Koblenz, NS 30/75, “Abschlussbericht,” 15 Nov. 1941.
8. On Himmler, H. Fleischer, Stemma kai swastika (Athens, 1995), ii, 303.
9. Apogevmatini, 11 July 1942.
10. D. Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents on the History of the Holocaust in Greece (1941–1943), (Tel Aviv, 1999), 82.
11. Kammonas in Pierron, 865–866; Apoyevmatini, 16–22 October 1942, 9 November 1942; Yiacoel, 87.
12. On Fardis, see Special War Crimes Court Martial (Athens), Praktika, 11 Feb–5 March 1959, testimony of Coen, pp. 31–33.
13. Zentrale Stelle der Landesjustizverwaltungen (Ludwigsburg): AR-Z 139/59 (Merten proceedings), B13–420, pp. 260–262 is the most thorough account; Molho, In Memoriam, 70–71.
14. Molho, In Memoriam 383–385; Yiacoel, 72–75
15. M. Novich, The Passage of the Barbarians (Hull, 1989), 56–57.
16. Yiacoel, 58, 75–76; Molho, In Memoriam, 386; Special War Crimes Court Martial (Athens), Praktika, 11 Feb–5 March 1959, testimony of Kyriakides, pp. 94–96.
17. C. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution (London, 2004).
18. Politisches Archiv Auswärtiges Amt (PAAA) (Bonn), “Judenfrage in Griechenland: 1941–1943,” R 100870, Suhr-Rademacher, 11 July 1942; D. Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents, 69–72.
19. Yiacoel, 82; Wisliceny affidavit, 611; PAAA “Judenfrage in Griechenland: 1941–1943,” R 100870/057, Luther-Athens, 25 January 1943; ibid., 059, Altenburg-Berlin, 26 Jan. 1943.
20. Molho, In Memoriam, 76–80.
21. Apoyevmatini, 25 Feb 1943.
22. Praktika, 70, 82, 108 (see note 12).
23. J. Stroumsa, Geiger in Auschwitz: Ein jüdisches Überlebensschicksal aus Saloniki 1941–1967 (Konstanz, 1993), 36–37.
24. Yiacoel, 119–120.
25. D. Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents, 136–137; Apoyevmatini, 8 March 1943.
26. S. Levy, “I apagogi ton katoikon tou Rezi,” Israilitikon Vima, 4 July 1947; Apoyevmatini, 16 March 1943; Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents, 152.
27. Molho, In Memoriam, 99–100.
28. D. Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents, 145; “Excerpts from the Salonika diary of Lucillo Merci (Feb.–Aug. 1943),” Yad Vashem Studies, XVIII (1987), 303–304.
29. A. Kitroeff, “The Jews in Greece, 1941–1944: Eye-witness accounts,” Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora, xii:3 (Fall 1985); A. Apostolou, “ ‘The exception of Salonika’: Bystanders and collaborators in northern Greece,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 14:2 (Fall 2000), 165–196, 180.
30. Kounio, 39; E. Kounio-Amariglio and A. Nar, eds., Proforikes martyries evraion tis Thessalonikis yia to Olokavtoma (1998), 367, 399; Praktika dikis Hasson, Albala ktl., 42.
31. D. Carpi, ed., Italian Diplomatic Documents, 178–179; Praktika dikis Hasson, Albala ktl., 36.
32. “Letters from Salonika, 1943,” The Jewish Museum of Greece: Newsletter, 33 (Autumn 1992), 4–8.
33. I. Matarasso, “And yet not all of them died …” in S. Bowman, ed., The Holocaust in Salonika, 192; E. Kounio-Amariglio and A. Nar, eds., Proforikes martyries, 23.
34. Praktika dikis Hasson, Albala ktl., 37–39, 65; Molho, In Memoriam, 101–102.
35. Kounio, From Thessaloniki, 43.
36. Praktika dikis Hasson, Albala ktl., 57; “Letters from Salonika, 1943,” The Jewish Museum of Greece, 5–6; Ambatzopoulou, Holokavtoma, 158–159; E. Kounio-Amariglio and A. Nar, eds., Proforikes martyries, 387.
37. Ambatzopoulou, Holokavtoma, 142–143.
38. B. Spengler-Axiopoulou, “Allilengyi kai voitheia,” in R. Benveniste, ed., Oi Evraioi tis Elladas stin katochi (1998), 20; J. Weber, Prosopa, 10; Praktika dikis Hasson, Albala ktl., 109.
39. Yiacoel, 108–109.
40. E. Kounio-Amariglio and A. Nar, eds., Proforikes martyries, 94.
41. Ibid., 45.
42. Drosakis, En Thessaloniki, 90; G. Andreades, Kalamaria mou axechasti (1994), 71–72.
43. Apostolou, “ ‘The Exception of Salonika,’ ” 175; Molho, In Memoriam, 127–131.
44. Gounaris and Papapolyviou, eds., Foros tou Aimatos, 101.
45. D. Czech, Kalendarium der Ereignisse im Konzentrationslager Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1939–1945 (Rowohlt, 1989), 445–480.
23 / Aftermath
1. N. Hammond, Venture into Greece: With the Guerrillas, 1943–1944 (London, 1983), 64–65.
2. To Fos, 21–26 April 1945; Douros report to Simonides, 13 June 1943, YDIP files; Kounio, From Thessaloniki, 159–160.
3. Douros-Simonides, 13 June 1943, YDIP files.
4. YDIP files, Dimitrios V.-YDIP, 9 April 1943 (Some names have been changed).
5. Zentrale Stelle der Landesjustizverwaltungen (Ludwigsburg): AR-Z 139/59 (Merten proceedings), B13–420, pp. 241–248 (Douros testimony).
6. YDIP files.
7. ASKI K411, 23/4/23; ELIA, Archeio Voulgarikis Katochis kai Propagandas sti Makedonia, 14/313; Matarasso, 164–165; Special War Crimes Court Martial (Athens), Praktika, 11 Feb–5 March 1959, testimony of Chrysochoou, pp. 65–66, 99–100.
8. NA RG 59/868.00/1324, Berry (Istanbul)-State, 6 Dec. 1943, enclosing “Memorandum of Dim. Andreades, Nomarch of Drama, Concerning the Situation in Macedonia,” 18 Oct. 1943; Matarasso, 223.
9. ASKI 23/4/121.
10. Matarasso, 178–192; To Fos, 16 March 1945; Israel Jacobson (AJDC), Salonica, August 1945; Omiron Israeliton Polonias—AJDC, 17 Nov. 1945, AJDC archives, gives a figure of 1,157.
11. “Despoues de la catastrofa en Salonique,” I. J. Levy, ed. and translator, And the World Stood Silent: Sephardic Poetry of the Holocaust (Urbana, Ill., 1989), 162–163.
12. Israel Jacobson (AJDC), Salonica, August 1945 (AJDC archives).
13. B. Mazur-Louis Sobel (JDC), 20 March 1945 (AJDC archives).
14. I. O. Jacobson-Phillip Bernstein, 12 Nov. 1945 (AJDC archives); Wiener Library, HA 15-1/2/7/C, “Greece,” April 1946 (Henriques Collection); “Greece,” 20 Dec. 1945, AJDC files.
15. Israilitikon Vima, 3 Oct. 1947.
16. Jewish Community of Salonica-AJDC (New York), 24 July 1946 (AJDC: file 455, AR 45/64), ibid., “Country director’s report on Greece,” 5 Sept. 1950.
17. Israilitikon Vima, 22 Feb. 1946; ibid., 15 March 1946; ibid., 22 March 1946, 10 Oct. 1946.
18. UNRRA archives (New York), PAG-4/3.0.12.0.1:4.
19. Fos, 19–20 May 1946.
20. Evraiki Estia, 28 Jan. 1949.
21. Israilitikon Vima, 1 Feb. 1946, 24 May 1946.
22. Fos, 28 February 1945; Israilitikon Vima, 18–19 July 1947; 3 Oct. 1947; “Zaploutos!,” Israilitikon Vima, 29 Nov. 1946.
23. Israilitikon Vima, 7 Feb. 1947, 9 May 1947; ibid., 28 Jan. 1949.
24. J. Jacobson—AJDC (New York), June 25, 1949 (AJDC 467, AR 44/64).
25. Evraiki Epitheorisis, 6 Feb. 1953.
26. Serefas, Ptomata, 80–87.
27. N. Kokallidou-Nahmias in I Thessaloniki sti dekaetia tou ’60 (1994), 35.
28. C. Packer, Return to Salonika (London, 1964), 3; E. Eden and N. Stavroulakis, Salonika: A Family Cookbook (Athens, 1997), 34–35.
29. J. Stroumsa, Geiger in Auschwitz, 74.
Conclusion / The Memory of the Dead
1. Qur’an, Sura 79: 10–14.
2. M. Molho, Usos y costumbres de los Sefardies de Salonica (Madrid, 1959), ch. 6; N. Vatin and S. Yerasimos, “Documents sur les cimetières Ottomans, II,” Turcica, 26 (1994), 169–187.
3. E. Kakoulidou, “Ta ellinika orthodoxa nekrotafeia tis Thessalonikis to 190 aiona,” Makedonika, 22 (1982), 391–420.
4. N. G. Pentzikis (translated L. Marshall), Mother Thessaloniki (Athens, 1998), 113.
5. I. J. Levy and R. L. Zumwalt, “Madame Sara: a spirit medium between two worlds,” in Y. Stillman and N. Stillman, eds., From Iberia to Diaspora: Studies in Sephardic History and Culture (Brill, Leiden, 1999), 331–345.
7. Pentzikis (translated by L. Marshall), Mother Thessaloniki, 23.
8. A. Adamantiou, I Vyzantini Thessaloniki (Athens, 1914), I; G. Ioannou, I protevousa ton prosfygon (1985), 105.
9. M. Hadzi Ioannou, Astygrafia Thessalonikis (1880), β.
10. Etaireia Makedonikon Spoudon, Eortastikos Tomos: 50 Chronia, 1939–1989 (1992), 27.
11. Ioannou, Protevousa ton prosfygon, 46.
12. A. Kyriakidou-Nestoros, “I Thessaloniki tis psychis mou,” in Logotechnia tis Thessalonikis (1989), 278–281.
13. C. Stewart, “Immanent or eminent domain? The contest over Thessaloniki’s Rotonda,” in R. Layton et al., eds., Destruction and Conservation of Cultural Property (London, 2001), 182–198; V. Dimitriades, Topografia tis Thessalonikis kata tin epochi tis Tourkokratias (1983), 299–300; C. Hadzantoniou-Delivoyiatsi, “O minares tis Rotontas,” Makedonika, (1995), 59–74.
14. Stewart, “Immanent or eminent domain?
” 190; G. Agelopoulos, “Political practices and multiculturalism: the case of Salonica,” in J. Cowan, ed., Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference (London, 2000).
15. G. Angelopoulou, “Politikes praktikes kai polipolitismikotita,” O Politis, 35–43.
16. B. Lefkowicz, “The Jewish community of Thessaloniki: An exploration of memory and identity in a Mediterranean city,” Ph.D., University of London, 1999, 18–19.
17. J. Hacker, “The Sephardim in the Ottoman empire,” in H. Beinart, ed., The Sephardi Legacy, ii (Jerusalem, 1992), 111; G. Tsaras, ed., I teleftaia alosi tis Thessalonikis (1430) (1985), 119–120.
Glossary
agha - janissary commander
ayan - provincial landed notables
ayios/ayia - saint
bazaar - open market
bedesten/bezesten - covered market for valuables
beratli - beneficiaries of the capitulation agreements (thus, clients of a European state)
bey - high military title
boza - drink made of fermented barley and millet
caique - long, fast boat
caravanseray - a hostelry for travellers
cavass - bodyguard
cortijo - courtyard
defterdar - treasurer
dervish - member of Muslim mystical order
devshirme - child slave levy
djami - large mosque
Dönme - see Ma’min
dragoman - interpreter
Effendi - title of respect
fetva - advisory opinion issued by mufti
firman - imperial decree
gavur - infidel (used of Christians) (also giaour)
ghazi - warrior fighting for Islam
halvades - sellers of halva
hamal - porter, carrier
hamam - bath-house
haremlik - women’s/family quarters
Hatt-i-Humayun - imperial decree/rescript
herem - a decree of excommunication
hodja - teacher
imam - Muslim prayer-leader
imaret - a complex of public buildings associated with a mosque
intari - gabardine overcoat worn by Jewish men
janissary - member of imperial infantry corps