6. Brothers DJ. 1989. Alternative life-history styles of mutillid wasps (Insecta, Hymenoptera). In Alternative Life-History Styles of Animals (MN Bruton, ed.), pp. 279–91. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
7. Schmidt JO and MS Blum. 1977. Adaptations and responses of Dasymutilla occidentalis (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) to predators. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 21: 99–111.
8. Fales HM, TM Jaouni et al. 1980. Mandibular gland allomones of Dasymutilla occidentalis and other mutillid wasps. J. Chem. Ecol. 6: 895–903.
9. Hale Carpenter GD. 1921. Experiments on the relative edibility of insects, with special reference to their coloration. Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 1921: 1–105.
10. Rice ME. 2014. Edward O. Wilson: I was trying to find every kind of ant. Am. Entomol. 60: 135–41.
11. Vitt LJ and WE Cooper. 1988. Feeding responses of skinks (Eumeces laticeps) to velvet ants (Dasymutilla occidentalis). J. Herpet. 22: 485–88.
12. Schmidt JO. 2008. Venoms and toxins in insects. In Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd ed. (JL Capinera, ed.), pp. 4076–89. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
13. Schmidt JO, MS Blum, and WL Overal. 1986. Comparative enzymology of venoms from stinging Hymenoptera. Toxicon 24: 907–21.
CHAPTER 10. BULLET ANTS
General interest reference:
Young AM and HR Hermann. 1980. Notes on foraging of the giant tropical ant Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 53: 35–55.
1. Spruce R. 1908. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, Vol. 1, pp. 363–64. London: Macmillan.
2. Lange A. 1914. The Lower Amazon. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
3. Rice H. 1914. Further explorations in the north-west Amazon basin. Geograph. J. 44: 137–68.
4. Allard HA. 1951. Dinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious stinging ant. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 41: 88–90.
5. Rice ME. 2015. Terry L. Erwin: She had a black eye and in her arm she held a skunk. Am. Entomol. 61: 9–15.
6. Schmidt C. 2013. Molecular phylogenetics of ponerine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). Zootaxa 3647(2): 201–50.
7. Bennett B and MD Breed. 1985. On the association between Pentaclethra macroloba (Mimosaceae) and Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) colonies. Biotropica 17: 253–55.
8. Hölldobler B and EO Wilson. 1990. Host tree selection by the Neotropical ant Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Biotropica 22: 213–14.
9. Belk MC, HL Black, and CD Jorgensen. 1989. Nest tree selectivity by the tropical ant, Paraponera clavata. Biotropica 21: 173–77.
10. Dyer LA. 2002. A quantification of predation rates, indirect positive effects on plants, and foraging variation of the giant tropical ant, Paraponera clavata. J. Insect Sci. 2(18): 1–7.
11. Fritz G, A Stanley Rand, and CW dePamphilis. 1981. The aposematically colored frog, Dendrobates pumilio, is distasteful to the large, predatory ant Paraponera clavata. Biotropica 13: 158–59.
12. Harrison JF, JH Fewell et al. 1989. Effects of experience on use of orientation cues in the giant tropical ant. Anim. Behav. 37: 869–71.
13. Nelson CR, CD Jorgensen et al. 1991. Maintenance of foraging trails by the giant tropical ant Paraponera clavata (Insecta: Formicidae: Ponerinae). Insect. Sociaux 38: 221–28.
14. Fewell JH, JF Harrison et al. 1992. Distance effects on resource profitability and recruitment in the giant tropical ant, Paraponera clavata. Oecologia 92: 542–47.
15. Fewell JH, JF Harrison et al. 1996. Foraging energetics of the ant, Paraponera clavata. Oecologia 105: 419–27.
16. Jorgensen CD, HL Black, and HR Hermann. 1984. Territorial disputes between colonies of the giant tropical ant Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). J. Ga. Entomol. Soc. 19: 156–58.
17. Thurber DK, MC Belk et al. 1993. Dispersion and mortality of colonies of the tropical ant Paraponera clavata. Biotropica 25: 215–21.
18. Barden A. 1943. Food of the basilisk lizard in Panama. Copeia 1943: 118–21.
19. Cott HB. 1936. Effectiveness of protective adaptations in the hive bee, illustrated by experiments on the feeding reactions, habit formation, and memory of the common toad (Bufo bufo bufo). J. Zool. Lond. 1936: 111–33.
20. Janzen DH and CR Carroll. 1983. Paraponera clavata (bala, giant tropical ant). In: Costa Rican Natural History (DH Janzen, ed.), pp. 752–53. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.
21. Brown BV and DH Feener. Behavior and host location cues of Apocephalus paraponerae (Diptera: Phoridae), a parasitoid of the giant tropical ant, Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Biotropica 23: 182–87.
22. Feener DH, LF Jacobs, and JO Schmidt. 1996. Specialized parasitoid attracted to a pheromone of ants. Anim. Behav. 51: 61–66.
23. Weber NA. 1937. The sting of an ant. Am. J. Trop. Med. 1937: 165–69.
24. Balée W. 2000. Antiquity of traditional ethnobiological knowledge in Amazonia: The Tupí-Guaraní family and time. Ethnohistory 47: 399–422.
25. Schmidt JO. 2008. Venoms and toxins in insects. In Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd ed. (JL Capinera, ed.), pp. 4076–89. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
26. Schmidt JO, MS Blum, and WL Overal. 1984. Hemolytic activities of stinging insect venoms. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 1: 155–60.
27. Piek T, A Duval et al. 1991. Poneratoxin, a novel peptide neurotoxin from the venom of the ant, Paraponera clavata. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 99C: 487–95.
CHAPTER 11. HONEY BEES AND HUMANS: AN EVOLUTIONARY SYMBIOSIS
General interest references:
Crane E. 1990. Bees and Beekeeping. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
Graham J, ed. 2015. The Hive and the Honey Bee. Hamilton, IL: Dadant & Sons.
Hepburn HR and SE Radloff. 2011. Honeybees of Asia. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
Wilson-Rich N, K Allin et al. 2014. The Bee: A Natural History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
1. Schmidt JO and SL Buchmann 1992. Other products of the hive. In: The Hive and the Honey Bee (J Graham, ed.), pp. 927–88. Hamilton, IL: Dadant & Sons.
2. Marlowe FW, JC Berbesque et al. 2014. Honey, Hadza, hunter-gatherers, and human evolution. J. Human Evol. 71: 119–28.
3. Morse RA and FM Laigo. 1969. Apis dorsata in the Philippines. Monogr. Philippines Assoc. Entomol., no. 1: 1–97.
4. Seeley TD, JW Nowicke et al. 1985. Yellow rain. Sci. Am. 253(3): 128–37.
5. Matsuura M and SK Sakagami. 1973. A bionomic sketch of the giant hornet, Vespa mandarinia, a serious pest for Japanese apiculture. J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ. Ser. VI, Zool. 19: 125–60.
6. Ono M, T Igarashi et al. 1995. Unusual thermal defence by a honeybee against mass attack by hornets. Nature 377: 334–36.
7. Sugahara M and F Sakamoto. 2009. Heat and carbon dioxide generated by honeybees jointly act to kill hornets. Naturwissenschaften 96: 1133–36.
8. Vollrath F and I Douglas-Hamilton. 2002. African bees to control African elephants. Naturwissenschaften 89: 508–11.
9. McComb K, G Shannon et al. 2014. Elephants can determine ethnicity, gender, and age from acoustic cues in human voices. PNAS 111: 5433–38.
10. Schmidt JO and LV Boyer Hassen. 1996. When Africanized bees attack: What you and your clients should know. Vet. Med. 91: 923–28.
11. Schmidt JO. 1995. Toxinology of the honeybee genus Apis. Toxicon 33: 917–27.
12. Schumacher MJ, JO Schmidt, and NB Egen. 1989. Lethality of “killer” bee stings. Nature 337: 413.
13. Smith ML. 2014. Honey bee sting pain index by body location. Peer J. 2:e338; doi:10.7717/peerj.338.
14. Schmidt JO. 2014. Evolutionary responses of solitary and social Hymenoptera to predation by primates and overwhelmingly powerful vertebrate predators. J. Human Evol. 71: 12–19.
15. Goodall J. 1986. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
16. Wrangham RW. 2011. Honey and fire in human evolution. In: Casting the Net Wide: Papers in Honor of Glynn Isaac and His Approach to Human Origins R
esearch (J Sept and D Pilbeam, eds.), pp. 149–67. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
17. Sanz CM and DB Morgan. 2009. Flexible and persistent tool-using strategies in honey-gathering by wild chimpanzees. Int. J. Primatol. 30: 411–27.
18. Buchmann SL. 2005. Letters from the Hive. New York: Random House.
INDEX
aardvark, 22
acetylcholine, 46, 146, 161
Aculeata, 5, 23–24
Africa, ix
African honey bees, 203–6
Africanized bees, 12–13, 28, 80, 186. See also killer bees
aggregation pheromones, 143
alarm pheromones, 91–92, 116, 122, 143, 175, 216
Allard, Harry, 182
allergy to stings, 73, 157, 207–8, 211
Amdro, 115
animals, dangerous, x
ant bites, 3, 56, 116, 122
ant clamp, 119
ant farms, 102
antivenom, 208–9
ant lions, 117
Anza-Borrego Desert, 122
apamin, 207–8
Aphenogaster ants, 102
aphids, 56
Apis cerana, 202
Apis dorsata, 195, 199–200
Apocephalus flies, 186–87
aposematic warnings, 6–7, 21, 53, 143, 145, 171–4, 191
Aristotle, 93, 198
army ants, 180, 222
Arthus reaction, 178
aspirators, 109, 178, 193, 211
Atta ants, 10
Australia, 170
baboons, 214
Bachleda, Lynne, 156
bacteria, 213
badgers, 87–88
balas. See bullet ants
baldfaced hornets, 3–4, 77–79, 82, 99–100, 189, 228
stings, 4, 100
Balée, William, 188
baobab trees, ix, x
barbatolysin, 47
Barden, Albert, 185
barns, 85, 99
barn swallows, 157
Barrows, Edward, 62
Bartram, John, 157
basilisk lizards, 185
bears, 35, 87–88
bee-eater birds, 28, 88
bees, solitary, 134. See also names of individual bees
beeswax, 197–98, 217
Belém, Brazil, 192
Belt, Thomas, 26
Bequaert, Joseph, 82
Bigelow, N. K., 87
black widow spiders, 117
blister beetles, 143
blue digger wasps, 162
blue jays, 21
Blum, Murray, xi, 42, 74, 192
Bohart, Richard, 176, 178
bonobos, 214
Borneo, 200
Boyer, Leslie, 208
Boy Scouts, 197
Brazil, 205–6
breath odor, 12, 29, 36, 92
Brothers, Denis, xi, 171
Brower, Lincoln, 21
Brummermann, Margarethe, xi, plate 1
Buchmann, Steve, xi, 51
bull ants, 11, 37–38, 223
bullet ants, 11, 179–94
fly parasitoids of, 186–87
human ceremonies with, 187–88
intracolony wars, 187
life history, 183–85, plate 7
pheromones, 185, 187
predators of, 185–86
stings, 179, 181–83, 192–93, 225
taxonomy, 183, 190
venom, 189–91
bullhorn acacia ants, 213. See also Pseudomyrmex ants
bumble bees, 3, 103, 149, 168, 196
stings, 196, 226
Buren, William, 64, 69
bushmaster snakes, 180–81
butterflies, 196
calcaria, 148
calcium cyanide, 69
cane toads, 186
cantharidin, 22, 52
carbon disulfide, 115
cardiotoxins, 206
carpenter bees, 15, 226
caterpillars, 164–67
Cerceris wasps, 134
chemical defenses, 16, 22, 56–57, 142, 171, 174–75
chicken dung fly, 103
children: as naturalists, 1–2, 78
play, 103
toys of, 2
chimpanzees, 214–15, 217–18
chlordane, 69, 96, 115
Chlorion wasps, 162–64, 227
cicada killer wasps, 6, 134, 147–55, 156
life cycle, 147–51, 163
mating, 151–53
nests, 148
predators and parasites of, 153–54
sizes, 150
sounds, 147
stings, 154–55, 227
venom, 149
cicadas, 148–49
citrate, 146
Clemens, Samuel, 156
Clypeadon wasps, 118–19
cobras, 215
cocaine, 199
cockroaches, 158, 163, 170
Coelho, Joe, xi, 149, 154, 161
Cole, Arthur, 125
Common Names Committee, 103–4
coniine, 73–75
Cosmopolitan magazine, 94
Costa Rica, 79–80, 92, 180, 185, 194, 210–11, plate 8
Cott, Hugh, 186
cow killers, 5–7, 169, 172. See also velvet ants
Cowles, Jillian, xi, plates 1, 6, 7
Creighton, William Steel, 101, 125
crickets, 162–63
Crumple Wing, 156
crypsis, 21, 50, 120, 171, 180, 191
cultural transmission of learning, 217
curare poison, 188–89
cytokines, 207
damage, 17, 27, 34–35, 45–47, 126, 146, 189, 215
Dambach, Charles, 154
Darwin, Charles, 27, 158, 198
Dasymutilla: asteria, plate 7
gloriosa, 178, 229
klugii, 178, 230
occidentalis, 6, 169
thetis, 227
Davis, Harry, 93, 97
DDT, 96, 115
defenses: against predators, 10, 14, 16, 116, 134
biting, 3, 15, 116, 122, 128, 145
body hardness, 144, 172–73
buzzing, 10, 38, 77–78, 81, 145, 153, 204
confusion, 22
failures, of, 88–90
hiding, 108
life spans, 51, 144
sociality, evolution of, 55–57
startle, 21
stings and resources, 219
stridulation, 174
toxins, 21–22, 128
Dethier, Vincent, 19
Diadasia rinconis, 51, 225
stings, 51
dieldrin, 69, 115
digger wasps, blue, 162–64
Dinoponera ants, 182, 193, 222
disguise, 159
dispersal, 158
dogs, 87, 213
Dolichovespula yellowjackets, 82–83, 228
domestication, 217–19
drones, 197
Drosophila, 195
Dufour, Léon, 61–62
Dufour’s gland, 61–62, 67–68
Duncan, Carl, 90
dwarf honey bee, 199, 210
Egen, Ned, 209
eastern hive bee, 199, 202–3
Eaton, Eric, 164
Ectatomma ants, 183
eggs, unfertilized, 60, 139, 150
elephants, 10, 20, 195, 203–4
energy, 19–21
enzymes, 128–29, 177
Erwin, Terry, 182
esterase, 177
Eumenid wasps, 166–67, 226–27
Euodynerus wasps, 165–67, 227
Evans, Howard, 77, 93, 133, 137–38, 142
Fabre, Jean Henri, 40–41
false black widows (Steatoda), 117–18
fear: general, ix, x, 1, 143, 155, 162
genetic, 1–2, 6
fer-de-lance snakes, 180
fire, 55, 98, 111, 217–18
Fire Ant Research Team, 70
fire ants, 59, 63–75, 213
mating, 66
native, 72, 74
stings, 64�
��66, 73, 75, 222
venom, 16, 73–75, 102, plate 5
flickers, 119
flowers, 213
Formica ants, 2, 128
formic acid, 2, 56, 91, 128, 143, 183
4-H beekeeping, 197
4-methyl-3-heptanone, 174, 187, 191
Frazier, Claude, 156
gamma radiation, 158
gasoline, 78, 98, 115
Georgia, University of, 5, 20, 42, 49, 65
geranyl acetate, 158
gerbils, 175–76
German shepherd, 87
giant ants, 222. See also Dinoponera ants
giant honey bees, 30, 199–200, 210
giant stink ants, 192, 223
giraffes, ix, x
Goodall, Jane, 215
gorillas, 214
Groark, Kevin, 123
gunpowder, 99
habanero peppers, 138
Hadza people, 214
Haig, Alexander, 200
Hale Carpenter, Geoffrey, 175
Halictidae, 59
Hamilton, W. D., 52
haplodiploid, 60, 139
Harrington, John, 123
harvester ants, 101–31
battle of sexes, 104–5
life history, 104–7
life span, 107–8
mating, 104–5
nest depth, 109–10, plate 4
as predators, 112
predators of, 116–18
queen defenses, 108–11
stings, 42–45, 102, 114, 116, 123–27, 131
toxicity, 130, 225
venom, 120–22, 128–30. See also Pogonomyrmex
harvester ant wars, 114–15
Hastings, Jon, 150
heart toxin, 206
Hemipepsis tarantula hawk wasps, 140
hemolysis, 129, 189, 206
heptachlor, 69, 115
histamine, 46, 161, 207
Hmong people, 201
Holliday, Chuck, xi, 150, 152–53, plate 2
hominids, 214–16
Homo, 214
erectus, 217–18
honey, 195, 197–98, 206
mānuka, 199
wound care, 199
honey badgers, 35–36, 214–15
honey bees, ix–x, 195–219
colonies of, 197
domestic, 204
drones, 197
learning, 29
life cycle, 198
predators of, 12, 168
queens, 197–98
in space, 197
stings, 4–5, 17, 195, 199, 206, 210, 226, plate 5
swarms, 200
taste of, 28–29
thermoregulation, 203
venom, 128, 199. See also individual species
honey buzzards, 88
honeycombs, 197–98