Historians need archives. In Nanjing, Vice-Director Ma Zhendu of the Second Historical Archives of China facilitated my access to these important archives. Historians also need to talk. My colleagues at the History Department of Nanjing University, especially Zhang Xianwen, Chen Qianping and Chen Hongming, have become lifelong friends. Discussions there and in Beijing with Yang Kuisong, Mao Haijian, Bu Ping, Yang Tianshi, Wang Jianlang, Wang Chao-guang and Wang Qisheng proved profitable, at least to me. In Taiwan, the Academia Historica and the archives as well as the library of the Institute of Modern History proved indispensable to my research, as did conversations with historians there, including Chang Jui-te, Ch’en Yungfa, Lü Fang-shan and Lin Man-hung. Dr Lin Hsiao-ting, the Curator of the East Asia Collection at the Hoover Institution Library and Archives, facilitated an extremely profitable two-week stay for me there.
Many colleagues have read part or even all of the manuscript. They include John Thompson, Timothy Cheek, Richard Frank, Li Chen, Sheila Miyoshi Jager, Beatrice de Graaf, Stephen MacKinnon, Edward Drea, Diana Lary, Yeh Wen-hsin and Susan van de Ven. They have saved me from making many errors.
Finally, Andrew Franklin of Profile Books proved a perceptive, wise and hugely enthusiastic editor. I thank Rana Mitter for recommending this book to Profile Books and Sally Holloway for smoothing my stylistic awkwardness during the copy-editing stage. Toby Eady, my agent, has always provided wise counsel and found the right people for me to work with. As is the case for all books, it is as much a collective as an individual enterprise. That does not mean, of course, that I am not responsible for any mistakes, of fact or interpretation, that remain.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Chi Pang-yuan. Photograph kindly provided by Commonwealth Publishing Group © Commonwealth Publishing Group, Taiwan.
2. Chen Kewen in his study as a young man. Photograph courtesy of Chen Fongching.
3. The Sun Yatsen Mausoleum in Nanjing, March 1934. Photo © John Swire and Sons.
4. Chiang Kaishek and his wife, Song Meiling, return to Nanjing, December 1936. Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive / Alamy.
5. Wang Jingwei, the Nationalist Number Two, circa 1930. Photo © 2007 C. H. Foo and Y. W. Foo. Fu Bingchang Collection.
6. The famous Great World Amusement Centre in Shanghai, destroyed by a stray Nationalist bomb, 14 August 1937. Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive / Alamy.
7. Refugees waiting to gain access to Shanghai International Settlement during the Battle of Shanghai. Photo © Mei-fei Elrick and Tess Johnston 2012.
8. Japanese soldiers during the Battle of Shanghai, summer or fall 1937. Photo: Wikipedia.
9. Yellow River floods near Zhengzhou in June or July 1938. Photo by Robert Capa © International Center Center of Photography / Magnum Photos.
10. A Presbyterian Mission orphanage in an unoccupied area of Guangdong Province, 1941. Photograph courtesy of The Presbyterian Research Centre (Archives), Dunedin, New Zealand.
11. The Nanjing Atrocity, December 1937. Photograph by Murase Moriyasu / Wikipedia.
12. Male Nanjing orphan taken in at Jinling Women’s College, December 1937 or winter 1938. Photograph by Ernest Forster © Ernest and Clarissa Forster, with kind permission of Matt Forster / Yale Divinity Library.
13. The Japanese advance toward Wuhan, 1938. Photo © Robert Hunt Library / Chronicle / Alamy.
14. Children being evacuated from Wuhan, summer 1938. Photo: Chronicle / Alamy.
15. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.
16. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.
17. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.
18. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.
19. Sha Fei – ‘Flying Sand’ – was a left-wing photojournalist who joined the Communists in Yan’an. Photograph © Sha Fei by permission of Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University.
20. Communist guerrilla hiding in a crop field. Photograph © Sha Fei by permission of Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University.
21. The aftermath of bombing in Chongqing, November 1941. Photography by Harrison Forman © Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee AGSL Collection.
22. A street scene in ravaged Chongqing © Robert Hunt Library / Alamy.
23. Portrait of a militiaman holding a landmine. Photography by Harrison Forman © Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee AGSL Collection.
24. Song Meiling, Madame Chiang Kaishek, at the Hollywood Bowl, June 1943. Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy.
25. General Okamura Yasuji affixes his seal to the surrender document, Nanjing, September 1945. Photo © Bettmann Collection / Getty Images.
26. The Communist entrance into Beijing, February 1949. Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy.
27. Japanese propaganda poster of around 1938 entitled ‘Look. Look. The Cruel Slaughter by the Communist Party’. Photo © IISH / Stefan R. Landsberger Collections (chineseposters.net).
28. Poster by Xu Ling, circa 1950. ‘The Chinese People Absolutely Cannot Condone Foreign Aggression …’.Photo © IISH / Stefan R. Landsberger Collections (chineseposters.net).
INDEX
A
Abend, Hallett 57, 63, 66, 82–3, 86, 97, 98, 106, 108
Academia Sinica 51
Acheson, Dean 265
agriculture 228; see also grain; rice
air force 59, 60, 62, 77, 79, 83, 159
Flying Tigers 169
Akira Ariyoshi 59
Alexander, General Harold 190
Andaman Islands 171
Anhui 147
Anqing 104, 110
anti-war movement 253
Army Reorganisation Bureau 35
art exhibitions 41
Asaka, Prince 96
‘At the Songhua River’ (song) 111
Auden, W. H. 101
Australia 129, 160, 161, 170, 227, 258, 265, 271
B
Bai Chongxi, General 33, 59, 71, 87, 88, 100, 101, 185, 186, 189, 254
Baldwin, James: No Name in the Street 114
Baoding 71, 78, 104, 209
Military Academy 21, 53
baojia system 38, 42
Barr, David, General 251
Battle for Beijing (1948–9) 2, 34
Battle for Nankou (1932) 71
Battle for Tianjin (1948–9) 2
Battle of Henan (1942) 182–5
Battle of Hengyang (1944) 186, 195
Battle of Jinzhou (1948) 251
Battle of Liaoning (1948) 244
Battle of Nomonhan (1939) 127
Battle of Shanghai (1937) 75–91
bombing campaign 79, 87; Brussels Conference 82; foreign reporting of 82–4, 86, 87; Operation Iron Fist 80; outcomes 91; public support for 89–91; scorched earth policy 106; significance 89
Battle of Shenyang see Liaoshen Campaign
Battle of Siping (1946) 233, 246–7
Battle of Taierzhuang (1938) 102, 103, 104, 131
Battle of Xuzhou (1938) 106, 145
Bauer, Max 35
Beijing
Asian and Pacific Peace Conference (1952), 268; battle for (1948–9), 2, 34; ‘black terror’ (1947) 236; Chiang Kaishek’s march into 30; Civil War, 211; Communists’ entry into (1949), Forbidden City 115; Gate of Heavenly Peace, 5, 27, 30; and Japan, 67, 71; KMT political council, 34–5; Marco Polo Bridge incident (1937) 2–3, 57–8, 65–9, 70, 72; military parade (2016) 3; Nationalists and 44; Olympics (2008) 3; population 38; Sun Yatsen’s memorial service 27; UNRRA in 228
Belden, Jack 1
01
Bernhardi, General Friedrich von: Germany and the Next War 34
Bertram, James 140
Bible 100
Deuteronomy 5:9 1; Jeremiah’s Lamentations 105; Matthew 26:6–7 57
Boer War 106
Bonin islands 266
Borg, Dorothy 229
Bose, Subhas Chandra 173
Boxer Protocol (1901) 65, 70
Boxer Rebellion (1900) 21
Braun, Otto 133, 139
Brecht, Bertolt: ‘To Posterity’ 133
Britain
and Battle of Shanghai (1937) 79; and Boer War 106; and Chinese Communists 235; Chinese relations with 40, 41; imperialism 173, 177, 178; and Japanese bombing of China 84–5, 86; Munich Agreement (1938) 116
Second World War 10, 193; American-British Conversations (ABC) 160; Burma 129, 163–4; treaties 175–6, 265–6; United States military aid 159
British Commonwealth 160, 265
British Empire 174, 177
Brooke, Sir Alan 171
Buck, John 135
Buck, Pearl 40, 135
The Good Earth 42, 100
Bulwer-Lytton, Victor 39
Burma 161, 162–6, 168, 171, 178, 191, 195
Burma Road 129, 158, 167
Byrnes, James 197
C
Canton
defence of 36; food imports 129; Japanese air raids (1939) 108; Japanese bombing of (1932) 83, 84; Japanese occupation of 104; Nationalists and 34–5, 44, 275–6; protests 24; resistance to Japan 67; Sun Yatsen in 24; Sun Yatsen memorial service 27; UNRRA in 228
Capa, Robert 101
Capital Plan 45, 46, 47
Carton de Wiart, General Adrian 168, 215
Happy Odyssey 157
census (1953) 273
Central Daily News 119, 201–2
Central Plains Army 255
Chahar 58, 59, 60
Chamberlain, Neville 85
Chang Shu-chi: Messengers of Peace 176
Chang Yuchun: tomb of 47
Changchun 233, 248–52
Changsha 67, 108, 123, 185–6
Chapei see Zhabei
Chen Bijun (wife of Wang Jingwei) 132, 225
Chen Cheng, General 53, 76, 81, 100, 102, 104
Chen Duxiu 131
Chen Jiageng (Tan Kah Kee) 103
Chen Jiongming 24–5
Chen Jitang, General 33, 59, 119
Chen Kewen 9, 51–3, 84, 85, 86, 90–1, 93, 99–102, 103, 105, 110, 120, 126, 136, 180, 184, 188, 225, 254, 272, 275–6
Chen Qimei 22, 23
Chen Yi, General 210–11, 255
Chen Yinke 90, 277–8
The Unofficial History of Liu Rushi 278
Ch’en Yung-fa 202, 240
Chengdu 123, 180
Chennault, General Claire Lee 79, 167–9, 170, 183, 190, 195, 196, 234
Chi Pang-yuan 9, 51, 53, 55, 56, 84, 93, 110–12, 125–6, 136, 170, 188–90, 215–17, 223–4, 272, 273–5
Chi Shiying 54, 55, 56, 110, 274
Chiang Ching-kuo 274
Chiang Kaishek
appearance 153; ‘Asia first’ strategy 159; authority of 92, 179, 236; and baojia 38; and Battle of Henan 184, 185; and Battle of Hengyang 186; and Battle of Shanghai 75, 78, 80, 82; and Battle of Taierzhuang 104; and British Empire 177; and Burma 171, 191, 193; and Cairo Conference 176–8, 232; character 153; and Chen Qimei 22, 23; China’s Destiny 179, 180, 200, 201; and Chongqing discussions (1941) 161; and Chongzhen Emperor compared 201; at Cockerel Mountain 105; and Communists 60–1, 88, 144, 146, 209–10, 213–14, 274; and counter-revolution 29–30; and countryside 136; criticism of 67; and defence of Guangxi 189; and ‘Double Ten Agreement’ 214; early life 21; and execution of Han Fuju 100; on foreigners 24; ‘Friend or Enemy?’ article 39–40; and Germany 34, 35, 36; home bombed by Japanese 123; and India 173, 174; and Japan 21–2, 32, 33, 59, 63, 68–9, 71, 72, 85, 120, 157, 177; and Japanese air raids 126; and Japanese surrender 204, 205, 207, 222; as a leader 2, 30–1; and Liaoshen Campaign 250, 251; and Liu Xiang 100; and loyalty 25; and Mao Zedong 212–13, 214–15; and Marco Polo Bridge incident 58; and Marshall Mission 231, 233, 234; and martyrdom 62–3; and May Fourth Movement 24; and military action 26; military training of 21; and Mongolian federation, 60; Moscow visit (1923) 25–6; move to Taiwan 256; and Nanjing 94, 95, 99; at Nanuye conference 112–13; and National Assembly (1946) 235; and Nationalist authority 143; as Nationalist Party Director General 103; and New Fourth Army Incident 148; and Potsdam Declaration 180; radicalisation of 22–3; and reading 22, 23; resignation of 253–4; and San Francisco Peace Treaty 268; and scorched earth policy, 108, 119, 189; and Soviet alliance 40–1; speech to legislators (1948) 275; Stalin’s support of 62; status 4; and Stilwell 164, 165–6, 169–70, 190, 192; and Sun Yatsen 24–6, 50, 221; at Sun Yatsen memorial meeting, Wuhan 99–100; ‘The Limit of Our Endurance’ speech (17 July 1934) 70; and unity 199, 221; vulnerability of 202; and Wang Jingwei 52, 121, 122, 123; and War of the Central Plains (1930) 33; Wedemeyer on 196; and Wei-kuo 25; Whampoa Military Academy command 26; wilderness years 22; and Winter Offensive (1939-40) 128; as a world leader 176; and Xi’an Incident 57, 61–4, 117; at Xi’an military conference (1944) 182; and Yellow river flooding 106–7; and Youth Party 129; and Zhang Zhizhong’s death 131
Chiang Meiling (Madame Chiang Kaishek) 105, 209
Chijang 123
China Democratic League 277
China Peace Committee 268
Chinese civilisation 109, 112, 278
Chinese language 3
Chinese Military History Museum 107
Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Agency 227
Chongqing 6
discussions (1941) 161; famine 43; Japanese bombing of (1939) 123–4, 125; museums 3; as a Nationalist capital 94, 105, 254, 276; Nationalist-Communist negotiations 213–14
Chuangshakou 80
Chungking see Chongqing
Churchill, Winston 11, 157, 160, 164, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180
cities 38, 273
Citizen News 52
civil servants 188
civil wars 1, 5
China 4, 33, 133, 142, 143, 209–15, 244; Russia 25; Spain 82; United States 108
Clausewitz, Carl von 6, 10, 104
On War 92, 141, 142, 203, 221, 229–30, 237, 240, 255
Coble, Parks 89
Cockerel Mountain 105
Cold War 11, 230–6, 268–70
collectivisation 240
colonies 230
Communism
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) 61–2; containment of 265; rustification of 134–9; United States 190
Communist Manifesto, The 22
Communist Party (CCP)
Chiang Kaishek and 63–4; constitution 179; discipline 5, 7; expansion of 198; founding of 2; and Japanese surrender 209; Mao’s purges of 138; and National Assembly 235; and Nationalist Party 137; policies 142; Rectification Campaign 149–54; rural policy 136–7, 243; and Xi’an Incident 62, 63
Communists
allegiance to 9; arming of 191, 192; bases 145, 146; and Battle of Shanghai 88; Campaign to Suppress Counter Revolutionaries 269; and Chiang Kaishek 60–1, 209–10; Chongqing discussions (1945) 213–14; and civil wars 4; and expansion 46, 145, 147, 149; France 232; and global revolution 115; and guerrilla warfare 7, 237, 245; and history 278; and Ichigo offensive 8, 198–202; Japan 264; and Japanese surrender 209, 213; and Korean War 259, 260, 261; land revolution 240–3; and Liaoshen Campaign 248–52; Malaysia 269; and Manchuria 232, 239; and Nationalists 103, 144, 233, 234–5, 237–8, 253–4; and New Fourth Army Incident 147–9; and new order 271–2; and revolt 31, 33; Second World War 5, 7; Soviet Union’s support for 233; Stalin and 61; triumph of 2; United Front 25, 28, 60, 88, 101, 137, 143, 144, 145, 148, 149, 151, 199; United States 190; and White Terror 135; Winter Offensive (1939-40) 128, 130; Yan’an base 58, 60
Confucianism 180, 185, 202, 264
Confucius: Analects 131
cooperative societies 42
corruption 136
counter-revolution 269
Cripps, Stafford 173
Cultural Revolution 46, 272, 277
currency 38, 183, 226, 253
Currie, Laughlin 158
D
Dagongbao (‘L’Impartial’) (newspaper) 89
Dai Jitao 23, 25, 53
Dalian (Dairen) 212
dams 38, 264
Davies, John Paton 211
Demchugdongrub, Prince 58–9, 60, 115
demilitarised zone 121
DeMille, Cecil B. 83
democracy 152; see also elections
Deng Tuo 276
History of Famine Relief in China 135
Deng Xiaoping 2, 180, 255, 269
Deng Yingchao 103
Dewey, Thomas 193
Dikötter, Frank 38
Doihara Kenji, Colonel 32
Donald, William 62
Doolittle, Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier General) James 162
Dorn Frank 196–7
Drea, Edward 181–2
drought 42
Drum, General Hugh 164
Du Fu 216
Facing Snow 203
Dulles, John Foster 265, 266
Durdin, Tillman 96, 97
E
East China Field Army 255
economy 38, 116, 183, 229, 269
Eden, Anthony 85–6, 176
education 3, 37–8, 54, 56; see also schools; universities
Eighth Route Army 144, 145–6, 198, 199
elections 142; see also democracy