social mobility: desirability of, 1, 5, 274; as Markov process, 140; policies promoting, 268, 274; popular perceptions of, 6, 8; predictability of, 3, 10, 117, 212, 262–63; standard estimates of modern, 3–6, 4f, 8–9, 9f, 11, 12; symmetrical movements, 213–15, 214f, 218, 220; unpredictable outcomes for individuals, 262–63; variations in, 5–6. See also downward mobility; educational mobility; regression to mean; status persistence; individual countries and groups
social mobility measures: across multiple generations, 292–95; correlations among, 112, 112t, 118; earnings comparisons, 289–90, 289f; of intergenerational mobility, 287–92; one-generation studies, 11; partial, 8, 11, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111–12, 112t, 116–18; standard, 107, 109, 110, 113, 116–17, 290; surname frequencies, 8–9, 9f, 11, 12, 107, 296–300, 298f; transition matrices, 287–89, 288t; underlying status and, 112–13; wealth persistence as, 98, 107. See also intergenerational correlations
social mobility rates: consistency of, 9–10, 12, 136–39; increase in modern societies, 6, 9–10; independence of social institutions, 125, 198, 208; low, 3, 9–10, 12, 107, 212–16, 261–62, 274; of minority groups, 5–6, 111, 113, 123–25; in Nordic countries, 5, 19; relative representation changes and, 20; underlying, 8, 108–13, 117, 125, 212, 282; variations across societies, 112, 113–14
social mobility theory: anomalies, 213, 228, 229–35, 238–47, 253–57, 257; assumptions of, 108–9, 228; concerns about, 261–63; deterministic component of, 215; estimates of underlying social mobility, 110–11; explanations of status persistence, 228–29; family dynamics and, 212, 223–25; law of motion, 109, 212–16; persistence rates, 108–10; predictions of, 112–13, 117, 212, 262–63; random component of, 113–14, 117, 215, 216, 290; simple law, 125, 212, 263; surface vs. underlying status, 108–13, 110f, 117, 125, 282; symmetrical movements, 213–15, 214f, 218; tests of, 120–21, 216–27
social phenotype, 12, 14–15, 282, 283–86
Social Security Death Index, 46, 48, 310
Solon, Gary, 127n, 128n, 330
South Jiangsu, China, 175–76, 176f, 177–78
South Korea. See Korea
Stanford University, 276–77n, 280n
Stanley, 80
status: intergenerational transmission of, 109–11, 110f; random component of, 108, 125. See also elites; inequality; social entropy; social mobility; underclasses
status measures. See education; occupational status; wealth
status persistence: of Brahmins, 10, 154, 282; in Chile, 208; in China, 174–75, 177–78, 177t, 181; of Copts, 10, 282, 285; of elites, 10, 216, 229, 239, 251, 252; in England, 6–8; explanations of, 12–13, 160, 247, 252, 282; genetic transmission and, 13, 14–15, 126–27, 136–37; of Gypsies/Travellers, 10, 240, 247; inequality and, 126–28, 199–200; of Jews, 229, 231; in Sweden, 20, 21t, 30, 41–44, 138; of underclasses, 11, 247, 251, 252. See also intergenerational correlations; persistence rates
Stevens, Ann H., 272–73
students. See education; university students
surnames: common, 301; frequencies, 301–5; occupational, 71–72, 89–90, 316, 317; origins of, 316–17; patrilineal, 15; researching, 301–15; status related to, 88, 306–12; toponyms, 27, 314. See also relative representation; individual countries and groups
Suzuki, 310–11
Suzuki, Masao, 67
Sweden: adopted children in, 266–68; cognitive abilities in, 116–17; democratic transition in, 167; education in, 19, 129–30, 266–68, 275; house prices in, 42f, 43; immigrants in, 26n; income correlations among siblings in, 268–69, 269t; income inequality in, 113–14, 114f; physicians in, 20, 21t, 26–27, 32–35, 32f, 33f, 34f; social programs of, 275; social segregation in, 43; taxation in, 19; tax records of, 27–28, 29f
Sweden, social mobility in: current, 20, 41; educational mobility, 35–39; evidence from surname frequencies, 20, 34–35, 41–44; perceived as high, 19; status persistence, 20, 21t, 30, 41–44, 138; studies of, 19
Swedish Academy of Music, 39–41
Swedish Academy of Sciences, 39–41
Swedish Bar Association, 30
Swedish National Agency for Higher Education, 129
Swedish nobility: current members of, 23; history of ennoblement, 22, 22f; ranks, 22; Riddarhuset, 21–22, 21f; surnames of, 20, 22–23, 24f, 28, 29f, 30, 33–34, 35–36, 40, 41–43
Swedish surnames: of attorneys, 30–32, 31f; changes, 24–25, 26–27, 30–32, 38–39; data sources for, 305; of elites, 20; incomes and wealth and, 27–28, 29f; latinized, 23–25, 25f, 28, 30, 33–34, 38–39, 39f, 40, 41; noble, 20, 22–23, 24f, 28, 29f, 30, 33–34, 35–36, 40, 41–43; patronyms, 25–27, 26f, 27f, 28, 30, 33–34, 35–36, 37, 40–41; of physicians, 26–27, 32–35, 32f, 33f; regulation of, 23, 24–25; topographical, 26f, 27, 27f; of university students, 35–39, 35f, 37f, 38f
Taiwan: elites in, 178–79, 179t; emigration from, 179; refugees from China in, 168, 178; social mobility in, 178–79, 179t; surnames in, 178
taxes: head, 238; inheritance, 96, 97f; in Nordic countries, 19, 275; poll, 71–72; redistributive, 9–10, 275; in United States, 48, 275
Teitelbaum, 302, 304f
Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Hardy), 317
toponyms, 27, 314
Tottenham House, 91–92, 92f
transition matrices, 287–89, 288t
Travellers. See Gypsies/Travellers
Tsinghua University, 173–74
underclasses: in England, 240; fertility rates of, 246–47; formation of, 140, 239, 251–52; rare surnames of English, 93–94; regression to mean by, 212–13, 214f; relative representation of surnames, 20; status persistence of, 11, 247, 251, 252; surnames of, 297; underlying status of, 282; in United States, 45, 49–51, 54–55, 249–51, 250f, 263–64, 278
underlying status, 8, 108–13, 117, 125, 126, 212, 282, 283–86
unionization rates, 276
United Kingdom. See England; Wales
UK Equality and Human Rights Commission, 240
United Nations Development Program, 201
United States: education in, 111, 131, 131n, 279–80; elites in, 45, 247–51, 263–64, 277–78, 279–81; Head Start Program, 273–74; income inequality in, 113–14, 114f, 261, 263–64, 277–78; Korean adoptees in, 265–66, 266t, 267f, 268; poverty in, 262; taxes in, 48, 275; underclass in, 45, 49–51, 54–55, 249–51, 250f, 263–64, 278. See also immigrants to United States
United States, social mobility in: of attorneys, 61–62, 61f, 62t; compared to Sweden, 45; educational mobility, 54; evidence from physician surnames, 52–59; of minority groups, 5–6, 62, 123–25, 277–78; persistence rates, 52–55, 57–59, 57t, 61, 62t; promoting, 261–62, 264; slow rates of, 45, 54, 68–69, 114, 261–62
United States, surnames in: African American, 45, 50–51, 54, 60; Cajun, 249–50n; in census (2000), 46; data sources for, 45–46, 309–11, 315; elite, 45, 47–49, 54–55, 247–51, 248f; Irish, 63–65, 310–11; Italian, 64; of Ivy League graduates, 49, 51, 54, 59; Japanese, 45, 48, 66–68, 192, 194–95, 310–11; Jewish, 47–48, 53–54, 60, 302–4, 304f, 310; longevity by, 310–11, 310f; Native American, 45, 51, 310–11; from New France, 49–50, 58, 60, 62–66, 67f, 249–50, 310–11; of rich (1923–24), 45, 48, 51, 54, 59, 60; status of, 309–11; underclass, 45, 49–51, 54–55. See also physicians, in United States
universities: admissions process of, 280, 280n; faculty salaries, 111, 111f; financial donations to, 276–77; Ivy League, 49, 51, 54, 59; selective, 268, 276. See also Cambridge University; education; Oxford University
University of California faculty salaries, 111, 111f
university students: Chinese, 173–74; public support for, 129–31; Swedish, 20, 21t, 35–39, 35f, 37f, 38f, 129; in United States, 131. See also Cambridge University student surnames; Oxford University student surnames
Uppsala University, 35–37, 35f, 37f, 38–39, 38f
upward mobility, 261–62, 264, 268, 274, 299–300. See also elites; social mobility
U.S. Census Bureau, 46, 283, 304, 315
Valenzuela, Juvenal, 204
Vietnamese, 249
Villalobos, Sergio, 204
Waldenström. Daniel, 41
Walder, Robert, 180
Wales: Parliament members from, 253; probate rates in, 306–7, 306t; probate records for, 313; surnames in, 304–5, 306–7
Washington, 50, 60, 310
wealth: influence on outcomes of, 269–73; inheritance of, 94–98, 95f, 95t, 136–37, 138f; intergenerational correlation in England, 94–98, 106, 120–21, 120t, 121f, 284; in medieval England, 84–87; random shocks to, 269–73; social mobility measured by, 98, 107; Swedish surnames and, 27–28, 29f. See also elites; inequality
West Bengal: endogamy in, 160–61, 166; marriage advertisements in, 147n, 163, 166; physician surnames in, 164–65, 165f; reservation system in, 151–52; social mobility in, 147–57, 158–60
Western Europe, social mobility in, 11. See also individual countries
Weyl, Nathaniel, 8n
whites, in United States, 124, 263–64
women: educational attainment of, 281; first names in India, 161–63, 161t; intergenerational correlation of mothers and children, 290–92; medieval occupations of, 71; status inheritance from, 15–16
Zoroastrians, 239
THE PRINCETON ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE WESTERN WORLD
Joel Mokyr, Series Editor
Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815,
by Philip T. Hoffman
The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850–1914,
by Timothy W. Guinnane
Black ’47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory,
by Cormac Ó Gráda
The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy,
by Kenneth Pomeranz
The Big Problem of Small Change,
by Thomas J. Sargent and François R. Velde
Farm to Factory: A Reinterpretation of the Soviet Industrial Revolution,
by Robert C. Allen
Quarter Notes and Bank Notes: The Economics of Music Composition in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,
by F. M. Scherer
The Strictures of Inheritance: The Dutch Economy in the Nineteenth Century,
by Jan Luiten van Zanden and Arthur van Riel
Understanding the Process of Economic Change,
by Douglass C. North
Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture, 1800–2000,
by Giovanni Federico
Cultures Merging: A Historical and Economic Critique of Culture,
by Eric L. Jones
The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond,
by Barry Eichengreen
War, Wine, and Taxes: The Political Economy of Anglo-French Trade, 1689–1900,
by John V. C. Nye
A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World,
by Gregory Clark
by Ronald Findlay and Kevin O’Rourke
Power over Peoples: Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400 to the Present,
by Daniel R. Headrick
Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialized World since 1800,
by Richard S. Grossman
States of Credit: Size, Power, and the Development of European Polities,
by David Stasavage
Creating Wine: The Emergence of a World Industry, 1840–1914,
by James Simpson
The Evolution of a Nation: How Geography and Law Shaped the American States,
by Daniel Berkowitz and Karen B. Clay
Distant Tyranny: Markets, Power, and Backwardness in Spain, 1650–1800,
by Regina Grafe
The Chosen Few: How Education Shaped Jewish History, 70–1492,
by Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein
Why Australia Prospered: The Shifting Sources of Economic Growth,
by Ian W. McLean
Cities of Commerce: The Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250–1650,
by Oscar Gelderblom
Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II,
by Mauricio Drelichman and Hans-Joachim Voth
Power to the People: Energy in Europe over the Last Five Centuries,
by Astrid Kander, Paolo Malanima, and Paul Warde
Fragile by Design: The Political Origins of Banking Crises and Scarce Credit,
by Charles W. Calomiris and Stephen H. Haber
The Son Also Rises: Surnames and the History of Social Mobility,
by Gregory Clark