Language Log, 158, 162
lap-dancing clubs, out-of-office socialising at, 71–72
lateralisation:
language and, 137–38, 271
in male vs. female brain, 136–40, 145, 271, 272, 277
visuospatial tasks and, 138–39, 145, 271, 273
lateral septum, 142
Lawrence, Peter, 112
leaders, women as, 62–64
Leadership and the Sexes (Gurian and Annis), xvii, 156–57
Lehrer, Jonah, 152–53
Lennon, Randy, 16
Levy, Neil, xix, 18, 91, 109, 116
Lewontin, Richard, 166
Liberman, Mark, 158, 162, 165, 170–71, 279
Lincoln Logs, 268
Logel, Christine, 33
logic, see systemising
Logothetis, Nikos K., 270–71
Los Angeles Times, 139, 168
Lynn, Matthew, 72
macaque monkeys, 126–27, 128
McClure, Erin, 159
McGlone, Matthew, 28, 32
male brain, xxvii
aggression centres as more developed in, 99
emotion processing in, 147–51, 156, 163
face-interest awareness studies and, 112–16, 129, 130
foetal testosterone surge in, xv, xxi–xxii, 99–106, 107–11, 117, 261
gender inequalities as determined by, 91
lateralisation in, 136–40, 145, 271, 272, 277
left hemisphere as underdeveloped in, 105–6, 136
localised (spotlight) connectivity of, 139, 144
as S-type, 106
systemising as innate characteristic of, xv, xviii, xix, xxiv, 9, 50–51, 91, 107, 109, 111, 116, 139, 144, 155–56
verbal abilities and, 34, 136
visuospatial processing in, 136, 139–40, 145, 146, 261, 273
see also gender stereotypes; neurosexism
Malebranche, Nicolas, xxiv
Martin, Karin, 70
Marx, David, 23, 251
Mason, William, 127
mathematical ability, see science and maths ability
Mathematical Olympiad Summer Program (MOSP), 183
mathematics, science, and engineering (MSE) careers, see science, engineering, and technology (SET) careers
media:
for children, see children’s books and media
implicit associations and, 6
oversimplification and misrepresentation of neuroscience in, 174–75
stereotype threat cues in, 172–73
medical profession, sexual harassment in, 73–75
men, in female-dominated fields, 64–65
Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus books (Gray), 81
mental rotation tests:
foetal testosterone and, 111, 130
gender beliefs and, 28–29
gender differences in, 27, 145, 250
girls with CAH and, 121
identity priming and, 28, 32
Mill, John Stuart, xiii, xxiv
Miller, Cindy, 227
Miller, Greg, 153
mind:
difficulty in inferring from brain, xxvi, 140, 142, 175
influence of social context on, xxvi, 4–13, 20–26, 28–29, 30–36, 95–96
male vs. female, see gender stereotypes
in newborns, 176
prevention focus in, 34
promotion focus in, 34
resource allocation in, 33–34
working memory in, see working memory
Minds of Boys, The (Gurian and Stevens), 170
minimal group studies, 227
Minzer, Pamela Burgy, 40–41
mirror neurons, 159
mobile-interest, study of, 112–14, 115–16
Moè, Angelica, 28–29
Moir, Anne, xxi–xxii
monkeys, gender-differentiated behaviour in, 103, 124–28, 269
Moore, Celia, 104–5, 143, 165, 262
moral reasoning, environmental priming and, 24–25
Morantz-Sanchez, Regina Markell, 29, 78
Morgan, Laurie, 70
Morris, Jan, 3
Morton, Thomas, 185–86
mothers, working:
cultural bias against, 57, 59, 84–85, 92
female brain as overwhelmed in, 86
seen as more warm than competent, 59
unequal work load of, 92–93
see also workplace, women in
motion perception, 152
motivation, gender salience and, 20–21, 22, 29
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), xvi, xvii, xxii
Mullarkey, Mary, 40–41
Murnen, Sarah, 221
Murphy, Mary, 42
Nash, Alison, 113–16, 198
National Association for Single Sex Public Education (NASSPE), xvii, 163, 278–79
National Educational Longitudinal Study (1988), 48
Nature, 54, 157–58
neuroconstructivism, 177
neuroendocrinologists, 101
neuroimaging, see brain imaging
neuroscience:
circular reasoning in, 171–72, 273
media oversimplification and misrepresentation of, 174–75
as more ‘scientific’ than psychology, 168, 169–70
in 19th century, 132–33
social responsibility in, 173–74, 281
neurosexism, xv–xix, xxi, xxiv, xxvii, 154, 155–67
educational influence of, xxviii, 162–67, 277–78
gender inequality as reinforced by, xxviii, 172–73, 186, 237–39
see also female brain; male brain
Newcombe, Nora, 250
New Republic, 129
New York Times, 58, 129, 131–32, 171
Nickelodeon, 222
Nobel Prize laureates, 109, 265
Norton, Michael, 60
Nosek, Brian, 4, 39, 247
nurturing:
in girls with CAH, 126, 269
in primates, 124, 126–28
see also parenting
Oberman, Lindsay, 161
Observer, 65
Opting Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home (Stone), 86–87
Orenstein, Peggy, 196, 204
organisation-activational hypothesis, 101
Outliers (Gladwell), 34–35
ovaries, 100–101
oxytocin, domestic duties as producing, 81, 82
Packaging Girlhood (Lamb and Brown), 220–21
Paoletti, Jo, 207–8
paper people, see fictitious job applicant studies
parenting:
gender-neutral, xx, 189–91, 204, 214–16, 238
gender stereotyping and, 79, 84–85, 87, 189–96, 198–99, 202–4
gender-typed play and toy choice as encouraged by, 202–3
hormone changes and, 87
in prairie voles, 142–43
in primates, 124, 126–28
in rats, 88
see also children
Parents’ Magazine, 88
Pease, Allan, 134, 140, 147–48, 149, 274
Pease, Barbara, 134, 140, 147–48, 149, 274
penis, foetal testosterone and, 106
PET (positron emission tomography), xvi, 134, 148, 153
Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 76
Pinker, Steven, 129, 130, 168, 179, 184, 190
Pinker, Susan, xxi, 41, 90, 95, 148–49, 179
pink princess phenomenon, 226
PONS, see Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity
prairie voles, 142–43
preoptic nucleus, 103–4
Pre-School Activities Inventory, 121, 123
prevention focus, 34
Price, Cathy, 152
primates:
effects of prenatal hormones on brain development in, 103, 123, 125–26, 127–28
gender-typed toy and play choice in, 124–25, 130
nurturing behaviour in, 124, 126–28
&n
bsp; sociocultural environment of, 126–27
proactive personality, 44
Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS), gender differences in, 18, 19, 159, 249
prolactin, 87
promotion focus, 34
Pronin, Emily, 50, 52
psychology, 118
publication bias, 271
Quarterly Journal of Science, xx
racial attitudes, children’s assimilation of, 199–201
Racine, Eric, 170
rats:
effects of hormones on brain development in, 102–5
environmental stimuli in development of, 104–5
parenting by, 88
preoptic nucleus of, 103–4
testosterone in, 104–5, 260, 262
Reading the Mind from the Eyes test, 17, 18, 108–9, 248–49
gender differences in, 18, 19, 264–65
Republican National Committee, 58
reverse inference, 151–52, 155
rewards, as reinforcing gender stereotypes, 91–93
rhesus monkeys, 103, 124–25
Rhode, Deborah, 216
Ridgeway, Cecilia, 4, 96, 246–47
right-ear advantage, 137
Ritter, Mary, 29–30
Rivers, Caryl, xxviii, 105
Rochat, Philippe, 266
Rogers, Lesley, 37, 157, 236, 238
Romanes, George J., 141
Rothman, Barbara, 192–93
Ruble, Diane, 226–27, 229
Rudman, Laurie, 59, 61, 83–84, 224
Russett, Cynthia, xxv, 132
Ryan, Michelle, 24, 64
Same Difference (Barnett and Rivers), 105
sample size, in brain imaging studies, 137, 138, 150
Sax, Leonard, xvii, 112, 163–65, 168–69, 191, 205, 276–77, 278
Schaffer, Amanda, 16, 119, 250
Schilt, Kirsten, 54
Scholastic Aptitude Test, 50–51, 251
Science, 50–51, 139, 144, 180, 181
science, engineering, and technology (SET) careers:
‘female’ traits suppressed by women in, 50–51, 52
sexual discrimination in, 51–52, 69
sexual harassment in, 73
women as intrinsically unsuited for, 90–91
women’s representation in, 118–19, 254
science and maths ability:
environmental influences on, 182–84
foetal testosterone levels linked to, 100, 129
gender inequalities in, 27, 29, 90–91, 95, 110, 129–30, 179–84, 190, 250, 277–78
Greater Male Variability hypothesis and, 179–80, 185, 280
implicit associations and, 35–36, 39
intuition and, 109–10
sense of belonging and, 48
stereotype threat and, 30–31, 32–33, 35–36, 42–43, 50–51, 173, 184, 252
Science Daily, 145
‘Science of Sex Differences in Science and Mathematics, The’, 139
scientific process, 238
speculation in, 153
Scientists Anonymous (Fara), 54
Scottish Qualifications Authority, 8
‘second shift’, 80
securities industry, sexual discrimination in, 68–69, 73
Sedgwick, William T., 67, 68, 75
Sekaquaptewa, Denise, 35–36
self-assessment:
gender differences in, 48–50
as influenced by environment, 52–53
role models and, 252
self-concept, 7–8
social identity and, 10–13, 26, 231–32, 247–48
self-reporting bias, 16–17, 120
Selmi, Michael, 68–69, 72–73, 76, 83
Seuss, Dr., 222
Sex in Education (Clarke), 166
Sexing the Body (Fausto-Sterling), 138
sexual discrimination:
benevolent vs. hostile, 67–68
intentional, 67–77, 92
as justified by essentialist theory, 185–86
seen as no longer prevalent, 41, 186
shifting criteria and, 60–62
unconscious, 54–66, 92
sexual harassment, 72–77
as downplayed by victims, 73–75
Sexual Paradox, The (Pinker), xxi, 41, 90
SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin), 262, 268–69
Shields, Stephanie, 178
Silverberg, Alice, xxvii, 62
Sinclair, Stacey, 10
Singer, Tania, 159–61
Smith, Joan, xxiii
Smith, Kara, 193
social context, see environment, sociocultural
social identity, 8, 24
salience of, 29, 107
self-concept and, 10–13, 26, 107, 231–32, 247–48
of women, 19, 26
see also gender salience; group membership salience
social norms, see environment, sociocultural
Sommer, Iris, 137–38
Sommers, Christina Hoff, 118
songbirds, effect of male hormones in, 101–2, 259
Spelke, Elizabeth, 46, 116
Spencer, Steven, 31
Stanford University, 50–51
Stapel, Diederik, 23
status quo, gender hardwiring as justification for, 91, 185–86
status-seeking, testosterone and, 36–38
Steele, Claude, 42
Steele, Jennifer, 9–10, 95–96
Steinem, Gloria, 89
stereotype threat, 251
advertising as cues for, 43
cues for, 31–32, 172–73, 251
emotional investment and, 35–36, 42
gender salience and, xxvi, 44, 236
maths ability and, 30–31, 32–33, 35–36, 42–43, 50–51, 173, 184, 252
as reinforced by belief in innateness of ability, 184–85
role models as counter to, 36, 252
and sense of belonging, 42–44
working memory and, 33, 35, 42, 252
Stevens, Kathy, 170
Stone, Pamela, 86–87
Stringfellow, Peter, 71
Stringfellows, 71–72
strip clubs, out-of-office socialising at, 70, 71–72
Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY), 181
Subjection of Women, The (Mill), xiii
Summers, Lawrence, 129–30, 168, 184, 190, 191
Sympathy and Science (Morantz-Sanchez), 29, 78
systemising:
and attention to detail, 265
foetal testosterone and, 107, 109, 111, 116, 129, 261–62
in girls with CAH, 120–21
as male trait, xv, xviii, xix, xxiv, 9, 50–51, 91, 107, 111, 116, 139, 144, 155–56
and women in science, 118–19
by young boys, 116
Systemising Quotient (SQ), 15, 18, 110
Tajfel, Henri, 227
Tavris, Carol, 261
temporal cortex, 152
testes, 100–101
testosterone, xv, 268–69
amniotic, 108, 110–11, 122, 262–63, 264, 265–66
cognitive performance and, 37–38
competition and, 252
maternal, 108, 122, 262
in new parents, 87
in rats, 104–5, 260, 262
status-seeking and, 36–38
and unequal division of domestic chores, 81
testosterone, foetal, 262–63
autism linked to, 106, 261–62
in brain development, xv, xxi–xxii, 99–106, 107–11, 117, 261
and children’s toy and play choices, 110–11, 121–22
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) and, 13, 119–23, 231
empathy and, 107–9
flimsiness of evidence on effects of, 117, 261
left brain underdevelopment and, 105–6, 136
maths ability linked to, 100, 129
penis and, 106
in primates, 103, 123, 125–26, 127–28
systemising and, 107, 109, 111, 116, 12
9, 261–62
Thailand, maths ability in, 181
Thatcher, Margaret, xxviii
Theory of Mind, 152, 266–67
Thorndike, Edward, xxiii, 178–79
Tichenor, Veronica, 82
tomboyism, 268
transsexuals, colleagues’ perceptions of, 3, 54–55
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS; 2003), 39
Tuck, Vicky, 165, 166
Turner, John, 247–48
Turner-Bowker, Diane, 220
Uhlmann, Eric, 58–59
Ulrich, Mabel, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85–86, 89
United Kingdom, maths ability in, 181
Vancouver Sun, 129–30
vasopressin, 142
verbal abilities:
female brain and, 139
gender stereotyping of, 34
male brain and, 136
vertical segregation, of sexes, 91, 92
vervet monkeys, 124, 125
veterinary medicine, 118
visuospatial skills:
gender differences in, 27, 51, 136, 138–40, 145, 249–50, 261, 273
identity priming and, 28–29, 32
lateralisation and, 138–39, 145, 271, 273
Wahlsten, Douglas, 138
Wallentin, Mikkel, 138, 271
Walton, Gregory, 31
Weil, Elizabeth, 163
Weisberg, Deena Skolnick, 154, 171–72, 173, 174
Weitzman, Lenore, 222
Weitzman, Nancy, 201–2
Wexler, Bruce, 177
What Could He Be Thinking? (Gurian), xvi–xvii, 81–82, 156
Whitman, Walt, 7
Why Aren’t More Women in Science? (Ceci, ed.), 112–13, 144, 146
Why Gender Matters (Sax), xvii, 112
Why Mars and Venus Collide (Gray), 140, 155–56
Why Men Don’t Listen and Women Can’t Read Maps (Pease and Pease), 140, 147–48
Williams, Christine, 64–65
Witelson, Sandra, 148–51, 274
womanly intuition, see empathy
Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, 75
women, in male-dominated fields, 27–39, 118–19
as endowed with male minds, xix–xx, 40
as intrinsically unsuited, 90–91, 233–34
as needing to outperform men, 29–30, 65
as role models, 36, 252
and sense of not belonging, 40–53
see also stereotype threat
women’s suffrage, 84, 131–32, 234
working memory, stereotype threat and, 33, 35, 42, 252
workplace, women in:
backlash against agentic traits in, 61
and competent/cold vs. incompetent/warm dichotomy, 62–63
as excluded from out-of-office socialising, 70–72
gender inequalities and, xxi, 41, 91, 92–95, 186
gender pay gap and, 65–66, 85, 257
motherhood penalty and, 57, 59, 84–85, 92
overt sexism towards, 67–77
and sense of not belonging, 51–52
in SET jobs, 50–52, 69, 73, 118–19, 254
sexual harassment of, 72–77