Bandura, Albert, 206
Barbie Magazine, 220
Baret, Jeanne, 54
Barnett, Rosalind, xxviii, 105
Baron-Cohen, Simon, xix–xx, 15, 17, 100, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112–13, 117, 120, 129, 139, 144, 168, 248–49, 261–62, 265, 266, 267
Barres, Ben, 54, 55
Baruch, Simon, 233–34
Beard, Mary, 40
belonging, sense of, 40–53
colleagues’ behaviour and, 51–52
environmental cues for, 44–48
stereotype threat and, 42–44
Bem, Daryl, 214–16, 225
Bem, Emily, 214–15, 283–84
Bem, Jeremy, 214–15, 283–84
Bem, Sandra, 214–16, 225, 283–84
Bergen Dichotic Listening Database, 271
Biernat, Monica, 56
Bigler, Rebecca, 230–31
Bird, Chris, 151–52
birth announcements, 194–95
Bishop, Katherine, 138
Blair, Sampson Lee, 80
Bleier, Ruth, 106, 136, 177–78, 261, 268, 271–72, 273
Blum, Lenore, 47–48
body language, attitudes expressed in, 200–201
Boston Globe, xxviii, 152–53
Bradley, Karen, 94–95
brain:
amygdala in, 149, 163, 276–77
anterior cingulate in, 152
association cortices in, 103
attribution of innateness to sex differences in, 170–71, 174–75
cerebral cortex in, 156, 163, 164, 276–77
communication centres in, 99
as coproduced by biology and environment, 177–78, 236
difficulty in inferring mind from, 140, 142, 175
distributed neural networks in, 143–44
environmental influences on, 176–78
evolutionary psychology and, 176
frontal lobes in, 146
gender differences as hardwired in, xv–xvi, xviii–xix, xxiv, 9, 13, 18–19, 50–51, 91, 107–9, 111, 116, 139, 144, 155–56, 158–61, 178–80, 185–86, 191, 275
gene expression and, 176–77, 236
hippocampus in, 164
inferior parietal lobe (IPL) in, 155–56
lack of knowledge about, xxvii–xxviii, 150, 169
limbic system in, 156
neuroconstructivist view of, 177
organisational-activational hypothesis of, 101–6
parietal lobes in, 146
plasticity of, 176–77, 236, 246
see also female brain; male brain
Brain Gender (Hines), 40
brain imaging:
control vs. experimental tasks in, 134–35
file-drawer phenomenon and, 134, 137
limitations of insights into psychological function from, 142–54, 157, 166, 169
real vs. spurious results in, 133–35, 137–38, 150, 175–76
reverse inference in, 151–53, 155
sample size in, 137, 138, 150
sex differences as observed in, xxii, 137–39, 143, 145–45, 148, 160–61, 163–64, 272, 273, 274–75, 276–78, 279
see also fMRI; MRI; PET
Brain Sex (Moir and Jessel), xxi–xxii
brain size:
IQ and, xxiv–xxv, 132, 141
in women vs. men, xxiv, 132, 141, 143, 274–75, 278–79
Brescoll, Victoria, 58–59
Brizendine, Louann, xv–xvi, xxii, 14, 19, 99–100, 104, 157–62, 167, 191
Broca, Paul, xxiv
Brown, Lyn, 220–21, 222
Bruer, John, 166
Buracas, Giedrius, 152
Burton, Frances, 123, 124, 126–27, 128
Bussey, Kay, 206
Cabot, Richard, 233–34
Cadinu, Mara, 32
CAH, see congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Caldecott Medal books, 220–21, 222–23, 285
Cameron, Deborah, 63–64, 271
care, ethic of, 24–25
career decisions:
gender stereotypes and, 48–49
implicit associations and, 83–84
Carnegie-Mellon University, 46–48
Carr-Gregg, Michael, 208
Castelli, Luigi, 199–201
Castle, Cora, xxiv
causation, correlation vs., 145, 273
CBS News, 169
Ceci, Stephen, 254
Center for Work-Life Policy, 51
cephalic index, 132
Charles, Maria, 94–95
Cheryan, Sapna, 45–46
children:
assimilation of racial attitudes by, 199–201
in-group bias in, 228
see also newborns; parenting
children, assimilation of gender identity by, xx, 207–13, 214–25, 238–39, 283
‘biology as fallback’ explanations for, xx, 189–91, 203, 216, 226
gender-coded clothing and, 207–11, 215
media and, 214–15, 218–23, 285
metaphorical cues and, 224
peer feedback and, 218
self-socialising and, 128, 226–32
tomboyism and, 268
toy and play choice and, 110–11, 198, 202–3, 205–6, 218, 229–31, 268, 282
children’s books and media, gender stereotypes in, 214–15, 218–23, 285
Civil Rights Act (1964), 41
Clarke, Edward, 166
Clinton, Hillary, 58
clothing, gender-coded, 207–11, 215, 226–27, 238–39
cognitive performance, testosterone and, 37–38, 129
communal traits, 3, 61
competition, testosterone and, 252
computer science:
Armenian women in, 93–94
geek stereotype of, 44–48
women’s contributions to, 45
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 119–23, 137
gender identity and, 267–68
language lateralisation and, 137
mental rotation and, 121
systemising vs. empathy in, 120–21
and toy and play choice, 121–22, 130, 231
Connellan, Jennifer, 112–15, 129, 130, 266, 267
contrast sensitivity test, 49–50
Conundrum (Morris), 3
corpus callosum, 136, 138, 143, 149, 156–57, 271, 272, 274
correlation, causation vs., 145, 273
Correll, Shelley, 4, 48–50, 57, 96, 246–47
Critical Neuroscience project, 281
CV(C) task, 271
Dana, Charles L., 131–32, 154, 234
Dar-Nimrod, Ilan, 173
Dasgupta, Nilanjana, 6
David, Barbara, 217, 224–25
Davies, Bronwyn, 11, 238
Davies, Paul, 43
Davis, Mark, 17
Deary, Ian, 179–80
Demos, John, 88
Deutsch, Francine, 85, 87
De Vries, Geert, 104, 142, 165
dichotic listening, 137, 271
Diekman, Amanda, 221
digit ratio, 108, 263
Disney Princess, 220
dominance, as male trait, 120
Dora the Explorer, 221–22
Dowd, Maureen, 58
Dux, Monica, 226
Dweck, Carol, 184–85
Eagly, Alice, 22
education, gender inequalities in, xxii–xxiv, 40–41, 132, 168–69
as perpetuated by neurosexism, xxviii, 162–67
single-sex schools and, xvii, 162–65, 168–69
Einstein, Albert, 109
Eisenberg, Nancy, 16
Ellis, Havelock, 146–47
emotion processing, in male vs. female brain, 99, 147–51, 156, 163, 276–77
empathic accuracy test, 19–21, 267
empathy:
affective, 15, 16, 23–25, 261–62
and attention to detail, 265
in CAH girls, 120–21
cognitive, 15, 16, 22, 261
as female trait, xv–xvi, xviii–xix, 13, 18–19, 2
2–26, 91, 107–9, 112–16, 139, 158–61
foetal testosterone and, 107–9
gender salience and, 20–26, 248–49
Empathy Quotient (EQ), 15–16, 17–18, 108, 248–49, 264
Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex, An (Gisborne), xviii
entrepreneurship, 43–44
environment, sociocultural:
brain as modified by, 176–78
CAH girls and, 122–23
gender inequalities as perpetuated by,
xxvi–xxvii, xxviii–xxix, 235–37
gender salience and, xxvi, 7, 8–10, 18, 22, 24–25, 28, 227, 232, 235–36, 238–39, 283
gender stereotypes and, 6–7, 28, 29, 39, 84–85, 95–96, 235–37
maths ability as influenced by, 182–84
mind as influenced by, xxvi, 52–53, 92, 105
moral reasoning and, 24–25
in primate societies, 126–27
self-assessment as influenced by, 52–53
sense of belonging as cued by, 44–48
Essential Difference, The (Baron-Cohen), xix, 15
essentialist theory, 185–86, 224
see also brain, gender differences as hardwired in
Everyday Mind Reading (Ickes), 17, 20
evolutionary psychology, 176, 250
experimenter expectancy effects, 114–15
facial expression processing, gender differences in, 18, 23, 116, 159, 266–67
Fagot, Beverly, 224
Fara, Patricia, 54
fathers:
in early America, 88
hormonal changes in, 87
Fausto-Sterling, Anne, xxvii–xxviii, 138, 142, 150, 236
Fawcett Society, 71, 72
female brain, xxvii
corpus callosum in, 136, 138, 143, 149, 156–57, 271, 272, 274
emotion processing in, 99, 147–51, 156
empathy as innate characteristic of, xv–xvi, xviii–xix, 13, 18–19, 91, 107–9, 112–16, 139, 158–61
as E-type, 106
face-interest studies and, 112–16, 129
facial expression processing by, 116, 266–67
foetal testosterone and, 99–106, 107–11, 117
gender inequalities as determined by, xvii–xv, xix, xxi–xxii, xxiv, 91, 95
interhemispheric (floodlight) connectivity in, 139, 144
intuition in, 157
lateralisation in, 136–40, 145, 271, 272, 277
as overloaded by work-family conflicts, 86
sensory processing in, 156
splenium in, 136, 138
as taking in more sensory data than male brain, 81–82
verbal abilities as more developed in, 99, 136, 138, 139
see also gender stereotypes; neurosexism
Female Brain, The (Brizendine), xv–xvi, 14, 157–62
claims about female brain, 86, 99–100, 158–61, 259
‘fetal fork’, 99–106
foetuses, sexual development of, 100–101
fictitious job applicant studies, 55–57, 59–62
Fielding, Kerin, 70, 118
file-drawer phenomenon, 134
Fiske, Susan, 67
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 134, 270–71
nuisance variables in, 135
forensic science, 118–19
Frieze, Carol, 47–48
Friston, Karl, 152
Galinsky, Adam, 11–12
Garner, Helen, 10
Gates, Bill, 45
Geena Davis Institute, 223
gender deviance neutralisation, 82–83
gender identity, children’s assimilation of, see children, assimilation of gender identity by
gender inequalities:
as biologically determined, see brain, gender differences as hardwired in
in education, see education, gender inequalities in
essentialist theory as justification for, 185–86
in homelife, see homelife
horizontal segregation and, 91, 93
as perpetuated by sociocultural environment, xxvi–xxvii, xxviii–xxix, 235–37
in science and maths ability, 27, 29, 90–91, 95, 110, 129–30, 179–84, 190, 250, 277–78
vertical segregation and, 91, 92
in workplace, see workplace, women in
see also female brain; male brain; neurosexism; sexual discrimination
gender salience:
in children, see children, assimilation of gender identity in
empathy and, 20–26, 248–49
as motivating factor, 20–21, 22, 29
as primed by environment, xxvi, 7, 8–10, 18, 22, 24–25, 28, 227, 232, 235–36, 238–39, 283
stereotype threat and, xxvi, 44, 236
gender stereotypes:
in advertising, 43
agentic traits in, 4, 58, 61
anger in, 58–59
brain size and, xxiv, 132, 141
career decisions and, 48–49
in children, see children, assimilation of gender identity by
in children’s books and media, 214–15, 218–23, 285
communal traits in, 3
as descriptive, 56
entrepreneurship and, 43–44
Greater Male Variability hypothesis and, 178–80, 185, 280
as implicit associations, 4–7, 35–36, 39, 83–84, 194, 199, 201, 235, 238
job applicants and, 55–58, 59–92
in language, 211
in 19th and early 20th centuries, 58, 67, 68, 75–76, 131–32, 141–42, 166, 178–79, 233–34
parenting and, 79, 84–85, 87, 189–96, 198–99, 202–4
as prescriptive, 56, 57–58
as reinforced by gender priming, 9–10, 18
as reinforced by rewards, 91–93
self-assessment as affected by, 48–50
and sense of not belonging, 40–53
in 17th and 18th centuries, xviii, xix–xx, xxiii, xxiv, 26
sociocultural environment and, 6–7, 28, 29, 39, 84–85, 95–96, 235–37
as statements about status, 38
ubiquity of, 8–9, 25
verbal abilities in, 34
see also female brain; male brain; sexual discrimination; stereotype threat
gene expression, 176–77, 236
Gene Worship (Kaplan and Rogers), 236
genital virilisation, 120
Germain, Sophie, 54
Geschwind, Norman, 105–6, 135–36
Gharibyan, Hasmik, 94
Giedd, Jay, 143–44
Gilligan, Carol, 24
Girls’ School Association, 165
Gisborne, Thomas, xviii, xix, xxiii, 26
Gladwell, Malcolm, 34–35
glass cliff, 64
glass escalator, 64–65
Glick, Peter, 67, 224
Gold, Ian, 144
golf courses, out-of-office socialising on, 70
Gong, Sherry, 182
Good, Catherine, 30, 48
Gorman, Elizabeth, 65
Gorski, Roger, 104
Gould, Stephen J., 235
Grace, Ariel, 46
Gray, John, 81, 140, 155–56
Greater Male Variability hypothesis, 178–80, 185, 280
Greenwald, Anthony, 4
grocery industry, sexual discrimination in, 68
Grossi, Giordana, xxvii, 113–16, 178, 180
group membership salience, 24–25, 28, 29, 227–29
Guiso, Luigi, 181
Gur, Raquel, 139, 144, 146
Gur, Ruben, 139, 144, 145–46
Gurian, Gail, xvi–xvii
Gurian, Michael, xvi–xvii, 81–82, 139–40, 156–57, 165, 170
Gurian Institute, xvii, 107, 111–12, 139
Hall, Judith, 159
Hansen, Jeffrey, 4
Harvard Law School, 40–41
Haslanger, Sally, 40
Hausmann, Markus, 28
Having It All (Deutsch
), 85
Heilman, Madeline, 56, 63
Heine, Steven, 173
Heppen, Jessica, 83–84
Hess, Beth B., 99
Hines, Melissa, 40, 102–3, 123–24, 128–29, 134
Hinze, Susan, 73–75
Hochschild, Arlie, 80
Hodges, Sara, 21
Hollingworth, Leta Stetter, 180
Holmes, Janet, 63–64
homelife, 78–89
division of chores in, 80–83, 87, 89, 92–93
gender deviance neutralisation and, 82–83, 92
husband/breadwinner stereotype in, 78–79, 82–83
parenting in, see parenting
wife/caregiver stereotype in, 79
homophily, 69
horizontal segregation, of sexes, 91, 93
hormones:
effect on brain of, xxvii, 236
gender inequality and, 129
see also specific hormones
housework, division of, 80–83, 87, 89, 92–93
Hyde, Janet, 180, 271
Iceland, maths ability in, 181
Ickes, William, 17, 19–21, 267
Iidaka, Tetsuya, 160
implicit associations, 282
consciously reported beliefs and, 5, 6, 194, 201, 247
gender stereotypes and, 4–7, 35–36, 39, 83–84, 194, 199, 201, 235, 238
Implicit Association Test (IAT), 4–5, 6, 35–36, 39, 83, 201, 247
Indonesia, maths ability in, 181
infants:
face-interest studies of newborn, 112–16, 129, 130
gender-stereotyped interests of, 204–5
gender-typed toys and, 198
intelligence:
brain size and, xxiv–xxv, 132, 141
Greater Male Variability hypothesis and, 179–80, 185, 280
International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO), 182–84
Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT), 22, 249
intuition:
as female trait, 157
scientific discoveries and, 109–10
It’s a Baby Girl (Gurian Institute), 107, 111–12
James, William, 10
James S. McDonnell Foundation, 171
Jeffreys, Sheila, 72
Jessel, David, xxi–xxii
job applicants, gender stereotyping of, 55–58, 59–62
Jobs, Steve, 45
Josephs, Robert, 36–37, 38
Jost, John, 195–96
justice, ethic of, 24–25
Kaiser, Anelis, 153
Kane, Emily, 189–90, 191–92, 203–4, 226, 231
Kaplan, Gisela, 236, 238
Kiefer, Amy, 35–36
Kimmel, Michael, xx, 235, 237
Kimura, Doreen, 129–30, 173–74
Klein, Kristi, 21
Kmec, Julie, 65
knowing-and-being effect, 32
Kobrynowicz, Diane, 56
Koenig, Anne, 22
Kraus, Linda, 17
Krawczyk, Rosemary, 198
Lamb, Sharon, 220–21, 222
language:
gender labelling in, 211
lateralisation and, 137–38, 271
right-ear advantage and, 137