Panormus captured.
253 Cn. Servilius Caepio C. Sempronius Blaesus
Roman fleet suffers in storm off Cape Palinurus.
252 C. Aurelius Cotta P. Servilius Geminus
Romans capture more towns in Sicily, including Lipara and Thermae.
251 L. Caecilius Metellus C. Furius Pacilus
Further fighting in Sicily; Carthaginians reinforce their army on the island.
250 C. Atilius Regulus (II) L. Manlius Vulso Longus (II)
Romans win battle outside Panormus and commence siege of Lilybaeum.
249 P. Claudius Pulcher L. Junius Pullus Dictator: A. Atilius Caiatinus Mag. Equ: Caecilius Metellus
Punic navy wins great victory off Drepana; Roman fleet suffers heavily in storm near Camarina; dictator sent to command in Sicily.
248 C. Aurelius Cotta (II) P. Servilius Geminus (II)
Sieges of Lilybaeum and Drepana continue.
247 L. Caecilius Metellus (II) N. Fabius Buteo
Sieges continue; Hamilcar Barca lands in Sicily.
246 M. Otacilius Crassus (II) M. Fabius Licinus
Continued low-intensity fighting in Sicily.
245 M. Fabius Buteo C. Atilius Balbus
Continued low-intensity fighting in Sicily.
244 A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus C. Sempronius Blaesus (II)
Hamilcar moves to Mt Eryx.
243 C. Fundanius Fundulus C. Sulpicius Galus
Continued fighting around Eryx.
242 C. Lutatius Catulus A. Postumius Albinus
New Roman fleet formed.
241 A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus (II) Q. Lutatius Cerco
Romans win decisive sea battle at the Aegates Islands; Carthage accepts peace; end of First Punic War.
240 C. Claudius Centho M. Sempronius Tuditanus
Outbreak of Mercenary War in Africa
239 C. Mamilius Turrinus Q. Valerius Falto
238 Ti. Sempronius Gracchus P. Valerius Falto
Rome annexes Sardinia and threatens Carthage with renewal of war.
237 L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinius Q. Fulvius Flaccus
End of Mercenary War; Hamilcar Barca sent to Spain.
236 P. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus C. Licinius Varus
Gallic raids on northern Italy.
235 T. Manlius Torquatus C. Atilius Balbus (II)
234 L. Postumius Albinus Sp. Carvilius Maximus
233 Q. Fabius Maximus M. Pomponius Matho
232 M. Aemilius Lepidus M. Publicius Malleolus
The tribune C. Flaminius carries a bill to distribute the ager Gallicus to citizens.
231 M. Pomponius Matho C. Papirius Maso
230 M. Aemilius Bardula M. Junius Pera
229 L. Postumius Albinus (II) Cn. Fulvius Centumalus
Death of Hamilcar Barca; succeeded by his son-in-law Hasdrubal; First Illyrian War; Romans establish a protectorate on the Illyrian coast.
228 Sp. Carvilius Maximus (II) Q. Fabius Maximus (II)
227 P. Valerius Flaccus M. Atilius Regulus
The praetor C. Flaminius probably the first governor of Rome's Sicilian province.
226 M. Valerius Messalla L. Apustius Fullo
225 L. Aemilius Papus C. Atilius Regulus
Gallic invaders defeated at Telamon.
224 T. Manlius Torquatus (II) Q. Fulvius Flaccus (II)
223 C. Flaminius P. Furius Philus
Flaminius wins victory over Insubres in Cisalpine Gaul.
222 M. Claudius Marcellus Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus
Insubres defeated at Clastidium and their capital, Mediolanum (Milan), captured.
221 P. Cornelius Scipio Asina M. Minucius Rufus
Hasdrubal assassinated and succeeded by Hannibal
220 L. Veturius Philo C. Lutatius Catulus
Construction of Via Flaminia.
219 L. Aemilius Paullus M. Livius Salinator
218 P. Cornelius Scipio Ti. Sempronius Longus
Second Illyrian War; Siege and Fall of Saguntum. Outbreak of Second Punic War; Hannibal's March to Italy; Romans defeated at Ticinus and Trebia; Cn. Scipio lands in Spain.
217 Cn. Servilius Gerninus C. Flaminius (II) Dictator: Q. Fabius Maximus Mag. Equ: M. Minucius Rufus
Flaminius defeated at Lake Trasimene; Romans appoint Fabius Maximus dictator; Fabius avoids contact with Hannibal's army, but fails to prevent his escape from Campania; Minucius defeated in large skirmish; Cn. Scipio wins naval encounter off the River Ebro.
216 L. Aemilius Paullus (II) C. Terentius Varro Dictator: M. Junius Pera Mag. Equ: Ti. Sempronius Gracchus
Hannibal wins massive victory at Cannae; Capua and some other states defect; Cn. and P. Scipio defeat Hasdrubal Barca near the Ebro (Iber); Romans appoint dictator; continued fighting especially around Nola; Roman army massacred in Cisalpine Gaul.
215 Q. Fabius Maximus (III) Ti. Sempronius Gracchus
Further fighting around Nola; Hannibal takes Casilinum; Punic reinforcements arrive at Locri; death of Hiero; alliance between Hannibal and Philip V of Macedon; start of First Macedonian War.
214 Q. Fabius Maximus (IV) M. Claudius Marcellus (II)
Romans retake Casilinum; Gracchus defeats Hanno at River Calor; murder of Hieronymus and defection of Syracuse to Carthage; Marcellus begins to operate in Sicily; Laevinus defeats Macedonians at Apollonia; more fighting near Nola
213 Q. Fabius Maximus the Younger Ti. Sempronius Gracchus (II)
Assault on Syracuse fails and Marcellus begins siege; Carthaginian army lands in Sicily.
212 Ap. Claudius Pulcher Q. Fulvius Flaccus (III)
Hannibal captures Tarentum; Romans start siege of Capua; Hanno defeated at Beneventum; Gracchus killed; Hannibal wins victory at Herdonea; in Sicily Marcellus eventually captures Syracuse.
211 P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus Cn. Fulvius Centumalus Maximus
Hannibal marches on Rome, but fails to prevent the fall of Capua; P. and Cn. Scipio defeated and killed in Spain; alliance between Rome and Aetolian League.
210 M. Valerius Laevinus M. Claudius Marcellus (III)
Hannibal wins second victory at Herdonea; Scipio Africanus appointed to Spanish command; Lilybaeum captured by Romans;
209 Q. Fabius Maximus (V) Q. Fulvius Flaccus (IV)
M. Servilius Pulex Geminus mixed fortunes in Greece; Romans raid African coast.
Tarentum recaptured by Fabius; Scipio takes New Carthage; further fighting in Greece
208 T. Quinctius Crispinus M. Claudius Marcellus (TV)
Both consuls killed in ambush; further Roman raids on African coast; Scipio wins battle of Baecula, but Hasdrubal Barca still leaves Spain.
207 C. Claudius Nero M. Livius Salinator (II)
Hasdrubal Barca invades Italy, but defeated at Metaurus; Philip Vs allies win victory at Mantineia; more Roman raids on African coast.
206 L. Veturius Philo Q. Caecilius Metellus
Aetolians make peace with Philip V; Scipio wins decisive victory at Ilipa and later suppresses Caecilius Metellus rebellion by Spanish tribes.
205 P. Cornelius Scipio P. Licinius Crassus Dives
End of First Macedonian War; Scipio prepares invasion of Africa; more Roman raids on African coast; Locri captured and Pleminius scandal; Mago invades Italy.
204 M. Cornelius Cethegus P. Sempronius Tuditanus
Invasion of Africa.
203 Cn. Servilius Caepio C. Servilius Geminus
Scipio destroys enemy winter camps and wins victory at Great Plains; Hannibal and Mago recalled.
202 Ti. Claudius Nero
Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama.
201 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus P. Aelius Paetus
Peace formally concluded; end of Second Punic War.
200 P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus (II) C. Aurelius Cotta
heavy fighting in Cisalpine Gaul. Start of Second Macedonian War;
199 L. Cornelius Lentulus P. Villius Tappulus
198 T. Quinctius Flamininus Sex. Aelius Paetus Catus
197 C. Corn
elius Cethegus Q. Minucius Rufus
Cethegus wins major victory over Insubres. Flamininus defeats Philip V at Cynoscephalae and ends Second Macedonian War; rebellion in Spain.
196 L. Furius Pupureo M. Claudius Marcellus
Marcellus defeats Insubres; Hannibal elected suffete
195 L. Valerius Flaccus M. Porcius Cato
Hannibal exiled; Cato campaigns in Spain, winning a major battle at Emporion.
194 P. Cornelius Scipio (II) Ti. Sempronius Longus
Victory over Lusitanian tribes, but war continues.
193 L. Cornelius Merula Q. Minucius Thermus
192 L. Quinctius Flamininus Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus
Beginning of Syrian War with Antiochus III.
191 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica M. Acilius Glabrio
Antiochus III defeated by Romans at Thermopylae; Scipio defeats Boii in Cisalpine Gaul.
190 L. Cornelius Scipio C. Laelius
Seleucid fleet led by Hannibal defeated.
189 Cn. Manlius Vulso M. Furius Nobilior
Antiochus III defeated by L. Scipio at Magnesia, brings the Syrian War to an end; Vulso attacks the Galatians.
188 M. Valerius Messalla C. Livius Salinator
187 M. Aemilius Lepidus C. Flaminius
Beginning of attacks on Scipios; Via Aemilia and Via Flaminia constructed in northern Italy.
186 Sp. Postumius Albinus Q. Marcius Philippus
Philippus defeated by Ligurians.
185 Ap. Claudius Pulcher M. Sempronius Tuditanus
184 P. Claudius Pulcher L. Porcius Licinus
Exile of Scipio Africanus; Cato's censorship. Death of Scipio Africanus.
183 Q. Fabius Labeo M. Claudius Marcellus
182 L. Aernilius Paullus Cn. Baebius Tamphilus
181 P. Cornelius Cethegus M. Baebius Tamphilus
Major rebellion by Celtiberian tribes.
180 A. Postumius Albinus Luscus C. Calpurnius Piso
179 L. Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus Q. Furius Flaccus
Celtiberians defeated.
178 A. Manlius Vulso M. Junius Brutus
177 C. Claudius Pulcher Ti. Sempronius Gracchus
176 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hispallus Q. Petillius Spurinus
175 M. Aemilius Lepidus (II) P. Murcius Scaevola
174 Sp. Postumius Albinus Paullulus Q. Murcius Scaevola
173 L. Postumius Albinus M. Popillius Laenas
172 P. Aelius Ligus C. Popillius Laenas
Both consuls plebeian for the first time; start of Third Macedonian War.
171 P. Licinius Crassus C. Cassius Longinus
170 A. Atilius Serranus A. Hostilius Mancinus
169 Cn. Sevilius Caepio Q. Marcius Philippus (II)
168 L. Aemilius Paullus (II) C. Licinius Crassus
167 Q. Aelius Paetus M. Junius Pennus
Perseus defeated at Pydna, ending the Third Macedonian War; Kingdom of Macedon dissolved.
166 C. Sulpicius Gallus M. Claudius Marcellus
165 T. Manlius Torquatus Cn. Octavius
164 A. Manlius Torquatus Q. Cassius Longinus
163 Ti. Sempronius Gracchus (II) M. Iuventius Thalna
162 P. Cornelius Lentulus Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus
161 M. Valerius Messalla C. Fannius Strabo
160 M. Cornelius Cethegus L. Anicius Gallus
159 Cn. Cornelius Dolabella M. Furius Nobilior
158 M. Aemilius Lepidus C. Popillius Laenas (II)
157 Sex. Julius Caesar L. Aurelius Orestes
156 L. Cornelius Lentulus Lupus C. Marcius Figulus
155 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica M. Claudius Marcellus (II)
154 L. Postumius Albinus M. Acilius Glabrio - suff.
Victory over Ligurians; major war begins in Lusitania.
153 Q. Fulvius Nobilior T. Annius Luscus
Major rebellion by Celtiberians.
152 L. Valerius Flaccus M. Claudius Marcellus (III)
151 A. Postumius Albinus L. Licinius Lucullus
Carthage declares war on Masinissa.
150 T. Quinctius Flamininus M. Acilius Balbus
149 L. Marcius Censorinus M. Manilius
Start of Third Punic War; campaign begins with Roman failures; Andriscus invades Macedonia
148 Sp. Postumius Albinus Magnus L.Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus
Poor performance of Roman army in Africa continues.
147 P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus C. Livius Drusus
Scipio given African command and tightens siege of Carthage.
146 Cn. Cornelius Lentulus L. Mummius
Capture and destruction of Carthage; end of Third Punic War.
APPENDIX I
The Republican Political System
The Magistrates
CENSORS
Two hold office for five years. Role: to carry out the census, the revision of the roll of citizens, also review membership of the senate, admit and expel senators.
CONSULS
Two a year - senior executive officers of the state. Role: to preside over senate and assemblies when in Rome, govern provinces and lead armies abroad to fight all major wars.
PRAETORS
Initially one (four a year from 227; six a year from 197 with need to organize Spanish provinces). Role: primarily judicial and to govern provinces lead armies not led by the consuls.
AEDILES
Four a year (two curule, two plebeian) Role: municipal administration, organization of corn supplies and festivals etc.
TRIBUNES OF THE PLEBS
Ten a year. No patrician allowed to hold the office. Role: to preside over concilium plebis.
QUAESTORS
Number gradually rises to ten a year. Role: financial administration at Rome and in the provinces.
The Senate
Membership around 300, regulated by the censors. Members had to be from the 18 senior equestrian centuries - therefore property of at least 400,000 HS. (one HS=100 sesterces, the silver coin that was the basic currency before the introduction of the denarius during the Second Punic War) They had little formal power, but were there to advise the magistrates, especially the consuls. Also received foreign embassies. Considerable prestige from the auctoritas of its ex-magistrates and exercised much power, influence because of its permanence.
The Assemblies
1 CONCILIUM PLEBIS
Only plebeians allowed to attend - divided into 35 tribes (4 urban, 31 rural) -membership based on ancestry - presided over by a Tribune of the plebs.
FUNCTION (a) Election of the ten tribunes of the plebs and the plebeian aediles+ special commissioners, (b) Passing Legislation.
2 COMITIA TRIBUTA
Made up of citizens including patricians - divided into 35 tribes (4 urban, 31 rural). Membership based on ancestry. Presided over by a consul, praetor or curule aedile.
FUNCTION (a) Election of curule aediles, quaestors, + special cornmissioners. (b) Passing Legislation.
3 COMITIA CENTURIATA
Made up of citizens - divided into 193 voting centuries. Originally derived from military organization of citizen militia. Membership of the group was based on possession of a standard of equipment. Eighteen equestrian cavalry centuries at the top (equites equo publico - able to claim a horse paid for by the state). Had come to be based on property qualification. Those better equipped wealthier voted first. Also had fewer members in their centuries - therefore had a disproportionate influence on voting. Presided over by a consul or praetor.
FUNCTION (a) Election of consuls, praetors and censors, (b) Declarations of War and ratification of Peace Treaties. Some legislation.
Index
Abilyx 249
Adherbal 120-1
Adys 85-7, 131
Aegates Islands 117, 122-6
Aemilius Papus, Lucius 139
Aetolian League 254-5, 257-9, 318
Africa
Carthaginian conquest of 28-30 First Punic War 84-92, 110-11, 131
Merc
enary War 133-6 Second Punic War 245, 286-309 Agathocles, Tyrant of Syracuse 28, 31, 65, 86
Agrigentum 76-81, 85, 97, 264, 266, 267
Alexander the Great, King of Macedon 54
Alimentus, Cincius 23, 216-17
Allobroges 163-5, 169
Alps 163-6
Altinus, Dasius 228
Andobales see Indibilis
Andriscus 346, 356
Anicius, Marcus 225
Antiochus III, King of Syria 147, 317,
319, 321, 323, 326-7, 331 Apennine Mountains 182, 184-5,
192, 193 Apollonia 255, 257, 259
Appian 22-3, 24 Second Punic War 154, 251, 269, 302
Third Punic War 335, 336, 340, 347, 348, 352 Apulia 220
Archimedes 14-15, 106, 263, 266 Ariminum (Rimini) 173, 182, 183, 191
Ariston of Tyre 331-2 armies
Carthage 30-6, 83-4, 153-5,
167-8, 178, 316
Hellenistic 318-19
Macedonia 258-9
Rome 44-54, 84,177-8, 219,
226-9, 312, 315-16, 358-62 Arpi 228-9, 233 Arretium 182, 184 Aspis (Clupea) 84, 90, 115, 346 Athens 98, 101, 102, 317 Atilius Caiatinus, Aulus 116, 131-2 Atilius Serranus, Gaius 152 Augustus 360-1 Autariatus 134
Baecula, Battle of (208 BC) 277-9 Baetica 279
Balearic slingers 153, 154, 179, 187, 207, 302
Bantius, Lucius 229
Beneventum 193, 226, 230
Boii 139, 151, 169, 172
Bomilcar 226, 238, 264, 265
Boodes 106
Bostar 85
Braneus 163
Britomarus 140
Brundisium 234, 256
Bruttians 72, 223, 226, 235-6, 237-8
Bruttium 220, 286, 313
Calor, Battle of the River (214 BC) 226
Camarina 83, 115
Campania 38, 193-4, 220, 223, 224,
228,233-5 Campanians 65-7 Cannae, Battle of (216 BC) 34,
197-219, 260, 266, 270 Canusium 236
Capua 194, 223, 224, 225, 228,
233-5 Carthage
armies 30-6, 83^, 153-5, 167-8, 316
attitude to war 149, 156, 315, 365-6
history of 26-36
Masinissa 335-6
Mercenary War 133-6
naval warfare 31-2, 97-8, 99-100, 104,124
political system 30, 137
Roman invasions 85, 86, 87, 215, 296, 307-8, 315, 341-55
Roman province 356, 357
Spain 136-8, 143-55
Syrian War 331
warfare 30-6, 55, 56-60 Carthalo (First Punic War,
commander) 121-2 Carthalo (politician after Second Punic
War) 332, 337
Carthalo (Second Punic War, Italy)