Jews under, 633
and Mengs, 248, 249
Polish throne acquired by, 430
promiscuity of, 344, 436
“Auld Lang Syne” (additional passages by Burns), 777
Aumont, Due Louis-Marie-Augustin d’ (1709–82), 25
Austen, Jane (1775–1817), 791
Austerlitz, battle of (1805), 726
Austin, Lady (fl. 1785), 811
Australia, 669
Austria, 341–408
abolition of torture and capital punishment in, 352, 356
academic freedom in, 358
agriculture in, 345, 356
army of, 38–39, 311, 344, 356
Bavaria and, 353–54, 362
Catholic Church in, 343, 348, 351–52, 358–60
censorship in, 343, 348, 358
economy of, 344–45, 349, 356–57, 456
education in, 343, 352, 358, 360
empire of, 38, 341–42, 354, 357, 360–64
England and, 277–78
Enlightenment in, 343–46, 348–53, 355–61
feudalism in, 345, 349, 356, 365
France and, 488, 846
as Holy Roman Empire, 341
independence of Netherlands from, see Austrian Netherlands; Inquisition in, 343
in Italy, 217, 227, 228, 249, 279, 311, 312, 313–14
Jansenists in, 359
and Jesuits, 318, 351–52
Jews in, 343, 352, 357, 631–32, 641–42
Joseph II’s reforms in, 348–53, 355–61, 364–66
legal reform in, 344, 356
literature in, 345–46
morality in, 344, 348
music in, 367–408
Poland and, 475, 482–83
population of, 357
prostitution in, 344
Protestants in, 343, 352, 357
religious toleration in, 348, 351–52, 357, 361, 641
Revolution of 1848 in, 366
Russia and, 349, 362–63, 432
social classes in, 344–45, 349, 356–57
Spain and, 277–78
Turkey and, 61, 363, 365, 411, 414–15, 430
War of the Spanish Succession and, 273
FOREIGN POLICY AND AGREEMENTS, 353–54
Convention of St. Petersburg (1757), 45
expansionist diplomacy, 362–63
First Treaty of Versailles (1756), 42
in League of Armed Neutrality (1780), 457
in Quadruple Alliance (1718), 278
Second Treaty of Versailles (1757), 42
IN SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (1756–63): campaign in Bohemia, 47
campaign in Saxony, 45
coalition against Frederick II, 59–60
diplomacy leading to, 38–42
end of French subsidies, 61
peace negotiations, 62
results of conflict, 62–63
Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), 42, 45, 341, 342, 361–64, 461
declares independence (1790), 364
Austrian Succession, War of the (1740–48), 15, 38, 40, 58, 240, 279, 648
autos-da-fé, 276, 279, 285
automobile, Cugnot’s, 70
Auvergne, 928
Avant-Courier, 114
Aviero, Dom José de Mascarenhas, Duke of (1708–59), 272
conflict with Pombal, 263
philosophes and, 267–68
trial and execution of, 265
Avignon, 317
Avis au peuple marseillais (Mirabeau fils ), 654
Azov, 430, 458
Baal Shem-Tob (Israel ben Eliezer; 1700?–60), 636
Babeuf, François-Émile “Gracchus” (1760–97), 938
Morelly’s influence on, 80–81
Rousseau’s influence on, 891
Babuti, Gabrielle, 112–13
Bach, Johann Christian, the “Milan [or London] Bach” (1735–82), 526–27, 755
in London, 746
Mozart and, 384
Bach, Johann Christoph Friedrich, the “Bückeburg Bach” (1732–95), 526, 568
Bach, Johann Ernst, of Weimar (1722–77), 526
Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685–1750), 221–22, 234, 256, 373, 395
family of, 100, 526–27
Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, the “Berlin Bach” (1714–88), 374, 380, 399, 526
contribution to music, 528
Bach, Veit (d. 1619), 527
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, the “Halle Bach” (1710–84), 526–27
Bach, Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst (1759–1845), 526–27
Bacon, Anthony, ironmaster (fl. 1785), 672
Bacon, Sir Francis (1561–1626), 251, 294, 427, 794
Baden, 362
Baggesen, Jens (1764–1826), 594, 650
Baghavand, battle of (1735), 419
Bagnols, riots in, 954
“Bahabec” (Voltaire), 151
Bahamas, 669
Baia, 327
Bailey, Nathaniel (d. 1742), 820–21
Bailly, Jean-Sylvain (1736–93), 957–58
Bakhchisarai, 430
Baku, 419, 470
balalaikas, 425
Balder’s Death (Ewald), 652
Balkh, 417
balloons, airborne, 932
Balsamo, Giuseppe, see Cagliostro
Balzac, Honoré de (1799–1850), 104, 919
Bamberg, Prince-Bishop of (fl. 1525), 560
Banco di San Carlos, 288
Banco di San Giorgio, 227
Bank of France, Turgot’s model for, 860–61
banking: in England, 670
in France, 235, 860–61
in Holland, 646
in Italy, 227, 288
in Switzerland, 643
Baptists, 735, 760
Bar, Confederation of, 481–83
Barbados, 669
Barbarossa, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1152–90), 239
Barbary States, 417–18
Barbauld, Anna, nee Aikin (1743–1825), 787
Barber, Francis (1745?–1801), 822
Barber of Seville, The (Beaumarchais), 334, 923
Barbiere di Siviglia, Il (Mozart and Paisiello), 334
Barcelona, 288–89
Barnave, Antoine-Pierre-Joseph (1761–93), 948, 957
Baroccio, Federigo (1528–1612), 115
Baron Munchausen’s Travels (Raspe), 534, 568
Baronius, Henriette (fl. 1789), 405
baroque architecture, 111
Barré, Isaac (1726–1802), 704
Barry, Mme. du, see Du Barry, Mme.
Barry, Spranger (1719–77), 740
Barthe, Nicolas (fl. 1778), 874
Barthélemy, Abbé Jean-Jacques (1716–95), 917
Bas Bleu Society, 730
Basedow, Johann Bernhard (1724?–90), 506–7, 612, 888
Basel, 643; Congress of (1795), 547
Bashkir tribes, 455
Basnage, Jacques (1653–1725), 641
Bassano, 229
Bassenge, Paul, jeweler (fl. 1785), 941–42
Bassi, Laura (1711–78), Professor at University of Bologna, 219
Bastille, fall of, 311, 364, 580, 934, 962–63
Batavian Republic, formation of, 694; see also Switzerland
Bath, 740
Bath, Earl of, see Pulteney, William
Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb (1714–62), 532
Bavaria: Austria and, 362
conflict between Joseph II and Frederick II over, 353–54
secret societies outlawed in, 507
united with Palatinate, 354
Bayeu y Subias, Francisco (1734–95), 299, 303
Bayle, Pierre (1647–1706), 10, 13, 139, 183, 280, 326, 427, 435, 557
clerical condemnation of, 890
Bayreuth, 354, 525
Bazhenev, Vasili (1737–99), 469
Beatrice of Burgundy (d. 1184), 239
Beauclerk, Lady Diana (1734–1808), 841
Beauclerk, Topham (1739–80),
827, 839
Beauharnais, Fanny, Comtesse de (1738–1813), 919
salon of, 907
Beauharnais, Joséphine de, nee Marie-Josèphe-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie (1763–1814), 907
Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron de (1732–99), 149, 852, 920–26, 944
aid to American Revolution, 867–69, 922
death of, 926
early life and education of, 920
in French Revolution, 925–26, 940
jailed for bribery, 921
philosophes and, 920
plays of, 922–25
publishes Voltaire’s collected works, 925
in Spain, 921
writes The Barber of Seville, 923
writes The Marriage of Figaro, 403–4, 923–25
Beaumont, Christophe de (1703–81), Archbishop of Paris, 90–91
Rousseau persecuted by, 189, 193–97
Beauregard, Captain (fl. 1722), 150
Beauvau, Mme. de, 118
Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, Márchese di (1738–94), 312, 320–21, 451
academic career of, 321
economic theories of, 321
ethics of, 739
influence of, 145, 336
influence of French Enlightenment on, 320
legal reforms proposed by, 320–2
Beckford, William (1760–1844), author, 255
on beggars of Portugal, 259
Beckford, William (1709–70), Lord Mayor of London, 704, 809
Bécu, Anne, 86
Bedford, John Russell, 4th Duke of (1710–71), 62
Bedouins, 411
Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770–1827), 334, 528
Goethe’s views on, 613
Haydn and, 378–80
Mozart compared with, 397–98
Beggars Opera, The (Gay), 696
Beiträge zur Optik (Goethe), 615–16
Belgium, see Austrian Netherlands
Belgrade, 415, 460
Bélisaire (Marmontel), 106, 463
Belisarius (505?–565), 804
Belisarius (Goldoni), 242
Bellamy, Georgeanne (1731?–88), 740
Bellarmine, Robert, Cardinal (1542–1621), 177
Bellmann, Karl Mikael (1740–95), 660–61
Belluno, 229
Belsunce, Émilie de (fl. 1796), 894
Benda, Georg (1722–95), 342
Bender, 460
Benedict XIII (Pietro Francesco Orsini), Pope (r. 1724–30), 246, 260
Benedict XIV (Prospero Lambertini), Pope (r. 1740–58), 225
aid to Jews, 633
death of, 264
enlightened policies of, 246–47
gentleness of, 319–20
Portuguese Jesuits and, 263–64
Benedictines, 294
Benevento, 244, 317
Bengal, 715–17
Bentham, Jeremy (1748–1832), 320, 738–39
on Blackstone, 737
Voltaire’s influence on, 881
Benucci, Francesco (fl. 1786), 404
Berengar of Tours (998–1088), 513
Berezovsky, Sozonovich (1745?–77), 425
Berg, Baron Friedrich Reinhold von, 328
Bergamo, 218, 228
Bergen, battle of (1759), 54
Bergman, Torbern Olof (1735–84), 612, 658
Berkeley, George (1685–1753), 183, 531, 759, 764, 834
Berlichingen, Gottfried (Götz) von (1480–1562), 561
Berlin, 63, 500, 530
architecture in, 524
factories in, 501
Jews in, 634
population growth in, 501
in Seven Years’ War, 49, 55, 60, 510
Berlioz, Hector (1803–69), 627
Bern, 643–44
revolts in, 645
Rousseau expelled from, 191, 206–7
Bernacchi, Antonio (1685–1756), 222, 232
Bernard, Abraham, cousin of Rousseau, 6
Bernard, Gabriel, uncle of Rousseau, 6
Bernard, Samuel, banker (1651–1739), 16
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Désirée, nee de Pellepou, 917
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Félicité, nee Didot, 917
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Jacques-Henri (1737–1814), 883–84, 886, 889, 904, 916–17
Bernhard, Isaac (fl. 1750), 638
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (1598–1680), 235, 247
Bernis, François-Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de (1715–94), 41, 67, 317–18
Bernstorff, Count Andreas Peter von (1735–97), 653
Bernstorff, Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von (1712–72), 517, 652
Berthollet, Claude-Louis (1748–1822), 939
Besenval, Mme. de (fl. 1742), 16
Besenval, Baron Pierre-Victor de (1722–91), 960, 962–63
Bessarabia, 411
Bessenyei, György (1747–1811), 351
Besterman, Theodore, 138
Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Alexei (1693–1766), 431–32, 442
Betsky, Ivan (1704–95), 453, 466
Bevilacqua, Palazzo, 245
Beyer, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (d. 1806), 345
Bibiena, Alessandro Galli da (1687–1769), 245
Bibiena, Antonio Galli da (1700–44), 245
Bibiena, Ferdinando Galli da (1657–1743), 245
Bibiena, Francesco Galli da (1659–1739), 245
Bibiena, Giuseppe Galli da (1696–1756), 245
Biblioteca Ambrosiana, 219
Biblioteca Magliabechiana, 219
Bibliothek der Schönen Wissenschaften und der Freien Künste, 638
Bijoux, Les (Diderot), 596
Bilderdijk, Willem (1756–1831), 647
Bill of Rights, American Constitution, 872
“Bill of Rights” of 1689, English, 699
Birmingham: growth of, 681
iron industry in, 672
theater in, 740
Biron, Ernst Johann von, Duke of Kurland (1690–1722), 429–30
Bismarck, Otto von (1815–98), 502
Black, Joseph (1728–99), 674–75, 763–64, 932
Black Hole of Calcutta (1756), 715
Black Plague, 312
Black Sea, 456–58, 483
Blackstone, Sir William (1723–80), 832, 736–38
on conversion of Protestants to Catholicism, 797
on English political structure, 686–87
Blagden, Sir Charles (1748–1820), 841
Blair, Catherine (fl. 1768), 783
Blair, Hugh (1718–1800), 767, 768, 776
Blake, William (1757–1827), 658
Blanchard, François (1753–1809), 932–33
Blenheim Gardens, 748
Blondel, Jacques-François (1705–74), 110
Blot, Mme. de (fl. 1760), 193
Bobrinsky, Alexis (b. 1762), 437
Bocage, Manuel Maria Barbosa du (1765–1805), 270
Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–75), 515
Boceage, Marie-Anne Fiquet du, nee Le Page (1710–1802), 799
Boccherini, Luigi (1743–1805), 292, 333, 377
Bodmer, Johann Jakob (1698–1783), 566
Boerhaave, Hermann (1668–1738), 647
Boguslawski, Wojciecz (1760–1829), 486
Bohemia, 354
Austria and, 38, 341, 350, 358, 365–66
culture in, 342
early history of, 341–42
Jews in, 631–32, 641
metal industry in, 344
population of, 342
revolt of serfs in, 350
Seven Years’ War in, 47–48
Thirty Years’ War in, 342
Böhme, Frau Hofrat, 524
Böhmer, Charles, jeweler (fl. 1785), 941–43
Boileau-Despréaux, Nicolas (1636–1711), 136, 169, 201, 528, 889
Boisgelin de Cucé, Raymond de (1732–1804), 126
Boisguillebert, François de (1592–1662), 72
Boismont, Nicolas Thyrel de (1715–86), 126
Boissel, François (fl. 1789), 938
Boissieu, Jean-Jacq
ues (1736–1810), 116*
Boizot, Louis-Simon (1743–1809), 106
Bokhara, Emir of (1740), 420
bolero, 292
Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount (1678–1751), 687
Bologna, 244–45, 310
Goethe in, 587
ratio of priests to lay population in, 224
university in, 219
Bolton, machine-wrecking in, 679
Bolzano, 229
Bombay, 58
Bonaparte, Joseph (1768–1844), 296, 334
in Spain, 296–98
Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon I
Boncerf, Pierre-François (1745–94), 929
Bonnefax, Father (fl. 1789), 901
Bonnot de Condillac, see Condillac
Bonnot de Mably, see Mably
Book of Lismore, The (compiled by James Magregor), 767
Bordeaux, 107, 932–33
Bordes, Professor (fl. 1740), 14, 23
Bordeu, Théophile de (1722–76), 130
Bordoni, Faustina (1693–1783), 223, 232
Borovikovsky, Vladimir (1757–1825), 466
Bortniansky, Dmitri Stephanovich (1751–1825), 426
Boscawen, Mrs., 730
Boscawen, Edward (1711–61), 57–58
Bosch, Hieronymus (1450?–1516), 305
Bosnia, 411
Bosporus, 458
Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne (1627–1704), 569, 796–97
Boston, 710
Boston Tea Party (1773), 711
Boswell, Alexander, Laird of Auchinleck (d. 1782), 778, 784, 836
Boswell, Euphemia, Lady Auchinleck, nee Erskine (d. 1766), 779, 783
Boswell, James (1740–95), 214, 729–31, 744, 753–54, 763–64, 778–85, 828, 964
bouts with venereal disease, 779–80, 782–83, 785
on Burke, 692
conversion to Catholicism, 779
death of, 842
death of wife, 842
dependence on alcohol, 784–85, 842
description of, 842
on Dutch women, 647
early life and education of, 779–80
in Edinburgh, 783–85
fame as “Corsican Boswell,” 784
family background of, 778–79
on Gibbon, 805
on Goldsmith, 817
his honesty about himself, 785
on lack of religion in England, 734
as Laird of Auchinleck, 841
later years of, 841–42
in London, 745, 779–80, 785, 841–42
love affairs of, 647–48, 779–83, 785
marries Margaret Montgomerie, 784
meets English celebrities, 780
on Neuchâtel, 191
Paoli and, 782–83
Rousseau and, 133, 152, 201–4, 210, 782–83
on Soho factory, 675
supports American Revolution, 833
Thérèse Levasseur and, 202–4, 783
on towns in Holland, 646
travels abroad, 781–83
Voltaire and, 133–34, 782
Wilkes and, 703, 782
JOHNSON AND, 837
conversations and opinions, 785, 820, 826–35, 839