CHAPTER 3
Page 84: From Aurel Stein, Innermost Asia, plate XCIII detail. 89: Author photo. 105: From Yan Wenru, “Tulufan de Gaochang gucheng,” Xinjiang kaogu sanshinian, p. 137. 109: From J. Hackin, Recherches Archéologiques en Asie Centrale (Paris: Les Éditions D’Art Et D’Histoire, 1931), plate I.
CHAPTER 4
Page 112: Courtesy of the Board of the British Library, Sogdian Letter #2 T.XII.A.II.2 Or.8212/95. 123: Frantz Grenet. 124, 126: Guitty Azarpay, Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art, University of California Press, 1981, the Regents of the University of California. 128: © 2010 F. Ory-UMR 8546-CNRS. 131: Frantz Grenet.
CHAPTER 5
Pages 140, 142: Xinjiang Museum (Chang’an diagram: Document #73TAM206:42/10). 145: Cultural Relics Publishing House. 147: From figure 4A, Yang Junkai, “Carvings on the Stone Outer Coffin of Lord Shi of the Northern Zhou,” Les Sogdians de Chine (Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2005), p. 27. 150, 155: Cultural Relics Publishing House.
CHAPTER 6
Page 168: From Ruins of Desert Cathay, p. 188. 172: Courtesy of the Board of the British Library, 392/56 (690). 178: From Wenwu, 1978, #12:23. 180: Courtesy of the Board of the British Library, 392/27 (589). 189: Amelia Sargent, detail from Dunhuang Cave 156. 193: Amelia Sargent, detail from Dunhuang Cave 45.
CHAPTER 7
Page 198: BNF, Manuscrits orientaux, Pelliot V 5538. 203, 204: Abegg-Stiftung, CH-3132 Riggisberg, inv. no. 5157. 205: From Ancient Khotan, Figure 65. 206: From Ancient Khotan, Figure 69. 208: From Plate XLVII, Ancient Khotan. 213: From Plate LXII, Ancient Khotan. 219: From Dunhuang tuwufan yanjiu, Volume 11 (2008), colored plate #4. 223: Amelia Sargent, detail from Dunhuang Cave 61.
CONCLUSION
Page 236: Courtesy of the Board of the British Library, Or. 8210/p. 2.
Index
Note: Page numbers in italics indicate photographs and illustrations.
Abbasid Caliphate, 138, 227
Abhidharma, 221
Abu Zayd, 165
Academy of Social Sciences, 130
Adams, Douglas Q., 72
adoption of children, 48, 215
Aesop, 125
Afghanistan
and Buddhist caves, 64
Chinese trade goods in, 236
and cultural exchange, 21, 25, 26
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 156
and Jewish-Persian documents, 217
and Kharoshthi script, 30
and lapis lazuli, 194
and Niya artifacts, 38, 39, 50, 52, 239
and Silk Road routes, 27
and Sogdians, 121
and Tocharian language, 71–72
and trading caravans, 196–97
and Xuanquan documents, 17–18
Afrasiab History Museum, 125
Afrasiab murals, 125, 128, 129, 138–39, color plate 11B
agates, 156, 194
Agnean language, 56–57, 70, 73–75, 77, 82
Ahura Mazda, 98, 118, 123
Ajanta caves, 62
Akamatsu Akihiko, 47
Ak-Beshim, 114
Akhun, Islam, 217
Aksu River, 60
al-Biruni, 128–29
al-Diwashini. See Devashtich
Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great), 30, 41, 48, 116, color plate 13
al-Harashi, Said, 136
Allen, Percy Stafford, 34, 174
al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir, 130, 136
Aluohan, 149
amber, 194
Amgoka, 44
Amitabha Buddha, 182
Ammoniac Mountains, 122
Ancient Khotan (Stein), 176–77
An Jia, 143–46, 145, color plate 14
An Lushan rebellion
and Dunhuang cave documents, 183–85
and economy of the Silk Road, 237
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 156–57
and Khotanese legal system, 215
and retribution against Sogdians, 157–58
and the Tang dynasty, 80–81, 107–8, 137, 187
and Tibetans, 184–85, 212
An Rokhshan. See An Lushan rebellion
anti-foreign sentiment, 159–60
Anxi Protectorate, 80
Anyang, 207, 235–36
Appian Way, 8
Arabic, 165, 228, 232
Aramaic, 117
Armenians, 231
arrowheads, 36
art. See specific forms of art
Arthashastra, 47
Astana graveyard, 84, 86, 93–99, 151, color plate 1
and Sasanian coins, color plate 4B
Atush, color plate 16A
Augustine, Saint, 182, color plate 11A
avadana stories, 62
Avar confederacy, 75
Bactria, 14, 33, 41
Bactrian language, 71
Badamu Village, 99
Bahudhiva, 209
Bai family, 66, 79
bamboo slips and documents, 14, 15, 250n25
Bamiyan caves, 64
Ban Chao, 66
banditry. See robbers and bandits
bankruptcy law, 165
Bartus, Theodor, 60–61
Basra, 165
Battle of Talas, 137, 138
Baumer, Christoph, 212
Beijing Library Collection, 183
Beiting, 72, 108
Bezeklik, 109, 110, color plate 9
Big Goose Pagoda, 151
bilingual texts, 220, 240
Blackmore, Charles, 9–10
Bodhi, 210
“The Book of Honor,” 183
The Book of Zambasta, 210–12
Bosshard, Walter, 212
“Bound for Samarkand” (letter), 112, 118
Bower, Hamilton, 10, 209
Bower Manuscript, 209
Boxer Rebellion, 169
Brahmans, 94, 143, 146, 161, 192
Brahmi script, 30, 53–54, 57, 70, 209–10, 220
Britain, 233
Brough, John, 44
Buddhism
and The Book of Zambasta, 210–12
and cataloging of documents, 180
and Chang’an, 150, 159–60
and Dandan Uiliq, 12
and dharma, 47
and The Diamond Sutra, 24, 179, 183, 236
and Dunhuang cave documents, 24, 167, 168, 173, 181, 183, 188, 190, 241
and education, 56
Hinayana Buddhism, 68
and immigrant populations from Gandhara, 21
and Khotan, 199–200, 203–7, 210–12, 221, 225, 227, 228–29, 231, 240
and Kroraina Kingdom, 26, 30, 31, 33–35, 47, 51–55, 53
and Kucha, 56–57, 66–70, 76–77, 80
and language studies, 221
Mahayana Buddhism, 52, 66–68, 69
Maitreya Buddha, 61, 211
and migrant populations, 4, 239
and missionaries, 240
and Samarkand, 138
and Sogdiana, 125
and stupas, 30, 31, 33–35, 53, 61–62, 62, 204–6, 205, 205, 207
and Tibetan rule, 186
and Turfan, 85, 88, 90–92, 108, 110–11, 231
Bühler, Georg, 173
Bukhara, 144
Bulayik, 108–9
burial practices
and Buddhist stupas, 30, 31, 33–35, 53
coffins, 38–39, 41, 41
and coins, 123, color plate 4A
funerary garments, 2, 3
joint burials at Niya, color plate 7
Khotanese, 201–2, 204
of Kroraina Kingdom, 38–42, 41
and mazar shrines, color plate 16A
Sogdian, 98–99, 143–46, 145, 147, 239–40
and the Tang dynasty, 157
and Turfan, 92–94, 98–99
Burma, 156
Burrow, Thomas, 43, 44
Burzil Pass, 27
Byzantine Empire, 20, 97–98, 123
ca
mels
and archeological expeditions, 9, 11, 27, 33, 38, 64, 94, 168, 196, 212
and caravans, 3, 36, 79, 103
and diplomatic envoys, 16–17, 50, 191, 192, 222
market for, 106, 148, 225
and migrant populations, 48
and religious artwork, 124, 128, 144, 145, 147
and sale documents, 209
and tourism, 203
and travel passes, 104
and Xuanzang’s travels, 113
Cao family at Dunhuang, 190, 191–92, 222, 227
Cao Lushan (Rokhshan), 2, 102–3, 148–49
Cao Yijin, 190, 222
Cao Yuanzhong, 186, 190
Capastaka, 225
capillary routes, 32
caravans
and Bento de Goes, 231–32
and camels, 3, 36, 79, 103
and Kucha trade, 77–82, 78
and local economies, 196–97
and Sogdiana, 122, 239
and Turfan, 88, 103–4, 232
and the Western Market, 148
carbon 14 testing, 204
cataloging systems, 180, 180
cattle
and Kucha, 76
and legal disputes, 3
and the Loulan garrison, 42
and migrant populations, 48
and Sogdian traders, 103
and tax documents, 216
and travel passes, 77–78, 78
and the Turfan market, 106
and Xuanzang’s travels, 114
Caucasoid groups, 13, 38
Chach, 127
Chaghanian Kingdom, 127
Chaghatai Khanate, 229, 231
Chang’an
and the An Lushan rebellion, 157–59, 185
and anti-foreign sentiment, 159–60
and foreign merchants, 148–49, 157–58
and Han dynasty, 17, 34, 65, 141, 143, 147
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 152–57, 153–54, 155
and the Huang Chao rebellion, 165–66
and Kumarajiva’s travels, 68–70
and modern Xi’an, 142
and religious communities, 149–51
and sea travel, 160–65, 162–63
and Silk Road art, 239
and Sogdians, 103, 143–47, 145, 147, 149–50, 157–59
and Tang dynasty, 148–49, 191
tombs found at, 22
and Xuanzang’s travels, 85, 141, 144, 151
See also Xi’an
Chat, 135
Chinese Communist Party, 93, 233
Chinese language
Dandan Uiliq documents, 215
Duldur Aqur documents, 81–82
and Dunhuang cave documents, 180–81, 182, 185, 188, 195
and early European geographers, 7
epitaphs, 143, 240
Faxian’s writings, 55
and Khotanese government, 211, 214, 222, 227
and Kumarajiva, 56, 69–70
legal contracts, 81, 95
Mount Mugh documents, 137
and Qu dynasty, 91
Chinggis Khan, 229
Chinwad Bridge, 146
Christianity
and Chang’an, 149–50, 150, 159–60
and cultural exchange, 4
and Dunhuang cave documents, 167, 181, 183, 195, 241
and Huang Chao rebellion, 165
and Küchlük, 229
and the Tang dynasty, 150
and Turfan, 108–10
Church of the East (Christian)
and Dunhuang cave documents, 167, 181, 183, 195
and Küchlük, 229
and migrant populations, 4, 149–50
and the Tang dynasty, 150, 150
and Turfan, 109–10
clay figurines, 207, 208
climate
and Chang’an, 151
and Dunhuang cave documents, 175
and human remains, 13, 38, 39
Khotan, 199
Niya and Loulan sites, 38
of Samarkand, 116
Taklamakan desert, 10, 242
and Turfan, 11, 21, 92–93
and Xuanzang’s travels, 114
Coan silk, 19
coffins, 38–39, 41, 41
coins
Arabo-Sasanian, 96
Byzantine coins, 9, 20, 97, 156
of Chang’an, 159, 165
of Dandan Uiliq, 215
and the Dunhuang cave documents, 195, 215
gold, 9, 20, 48–49, 90, 93–98, 123, 153, 156, 156, color plate 4A
Greek types found in Gandhara region, 48–49
of Hejiacun Village Hoard, 152, 153–54, 156–57
hybrid coins, 202
of Khotan, 202, 209
of Kroraina Kingdom, 35–36, 42–43, 48–50
of Kucha, 76, 79, 81–82
and legal disputes, 3–4
and local barter trade, 4
of Panjikent, 122–23
and payments to soldiers, 8–9
and port trade, 165
of Rome, 9, 20, 97
of Samarkand, 119, 132
of the Sasanian Empire, 3, 20, 75–76, 90, 93, 95, 97–102, 156, color plate 4B
silver, 3, 20, 49, 75–76, 90, 93, 97–102, 156, color plate 4B
Sino-Kharoshthi coins, 202
of Tang dynasty, 151–52, 159–60, 184–86, 193
and Tibetan rule, 185–86
and trade with Rome, 9, 20, color plate 4A
of Turfan, 93–99, 100–102, 103, 104, 106–7, 111
of Xuanquan, 15
colophons, 71
commodities, 99–102, 100–102, 119, 239
Communist Party (China), 93, 233
The Compendium of the Teachings of Mani the Buddha of Light. 183
Confessions (Augustine), 182
Confucianism, 144, 152, 182–83
Constantine, 97, color plate 4A
contracts
Astana graveyard documents, 94
and the Dunhuang economy, 192–94
and Karakhanid state, 228
and Khotanese documents, 209
marriage contracts, 133–34
and moneylenders, 96
and Niya documents, 45–47
and slavery, 3