Voltaire on, 260–61
weakening support of, 267–68
word of God affirming, 254
Logos (Word), 71
Lucretius, 238–39
On the Nature of Things, 273–75
Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), 12, 13, 281
Luke, Saint, 128
Lullu (ethnic name), 44, 328
Luther, Martin, 213, 309
Lyell, Charles, 275
Principles of Geology, 276, 278, 279
Lyons, bishop of, 109
Machiavelli, Niccolò, The Prince, 294
Maimonides, 337
Malthus, Thomas Robert, 248
man, first, see Adam
Manichaeism:
and Augustine, 87–88, 89, 90, 91, 98, 99–100, 101, 109, 111, 118, 352
belief that flesh was the creation and possession of a wicked god, 109, 111
Elect (true believers) in, 88
powers of light and darkness (good and evil) in, 87, 99–100, 101, 260
Mantegna, Andrea, 206
Marcella (widow), 123
Marcion, Bishop, 73–74, 75, 87
Marduk, 70, 74
as Babylonian Storm God, 26, 27, 30, 35, 41–42
and Berossus, 41
cult of, 328
and Enuma Elish, 27, 28–29, 33, 44, 58
and fall of Babylon, 32, 35, 41–42
first humans created by, 33, 41, 328
lullu hymns to, 44
Yahweh vs., 26, 27, 35, 44
Marlowe, Christopher, 216–17, 240
Marranos, 231, 235
marriage:
and Adam and Eve story, 8, 69, 213–14, 229
ascetic condemnations of, 124–25
Augustine on, 108, 213, 344
balance of power in, 126, 135
becoming one flesh, 94, 179
“better to marry than burn,” 94
celebration of, 124
and companionship, 180, 181–82, 210, 214–16, 354, 355
and divorce, 177–85, 188, 192, 194, 196, 197, 204, 223, 227, 353–56
intercourse sanctified by, 167, 168
intermarriage, 34
Julian on, 123
and love, 216–21
and procreation, 85–86, 118, 124, 180, 217
and reconciliation, 226–27, 229–30
Marvell, Andrew, 358
Mary:
celebration of, 127–30
cult of, 130, 132
illustrations of, 128–29, 130
obedience of, 128
and salvation, 134, 136
Masaccio (Tomasso di Ser Giovanni di Simone), 149, 150, 152, 154, 206
Matthew, gospel of, 179
Maximus Tyrius, 239
men:
cruelty of, 134
in God’s image, 129, 131, 218
“he for God only …,” 218, 221
loving men, 53–54, 56, 60, 61–62
in monastic communities, 130, 167
mutual companionship of, 130, 220
relationships of women and, 239
and sexual arousal, 115
transgressions of, 133
women dominated by, 3, 91, 125, 126, 127, 135–37, 218, 224, 229, 294–95, 298, 333–34
Mersenne, Marin, 359
Mesopotamia, 24
Atrahasis story of, 29, 39, 46–49
Enuma Elish origin story of, 27–29, 33, 39, 44, 46, 52, 57, 58
fallen into ruin, 40, 42, 56
Gilgamesh story of, 29, 39, 46–47
Jewish community in, 25
library of, 42
mythology of, 27
royal archives of, 42
written creation myths of, 39
see also Babylonian Empire
Methuselah, 22
Michael (archangel), 72, 128, 228–29
Michelangelo Buonarotti, 9, 151, 154, 207, 277
microscope, invention of, 275
Middle Ages:
Adam and Eve story interpreted in, 7, 143, 144–46, 296
heavenly war story in, 208, 223
medieval art and philosophy, 148–49, 206, 296
travelers in, 42
Milton, Christopher, 349
Milton, John, 9, 56, 349–59
Areopagitica, 185
and Betty Minshull, 200
blindness of, 185, 196–97, 200, 206, 207, 212
at Cambridge, 164–65, 220
on censorship, 185
on chastity, 166–69, 170, 172, 173, 174, 181, 184, 214
children of, 187–88, 197, 198, 200, 226, 356
Christian faith of, 205–6, 207, 220
and civil war, 171–72, 177, 186, 192–93, 194, 198, 204–5, 206
Comus, 165–67, 168
creative energies of, 206
on divorce, 177–85, 188, 192, 194, 196, 197, 204, 223, 226
The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, Restored to the Good of Both Sexes, 181, 183–84, 192, 194, 197, 353
dream of immortality, 167–68, 171, 173, 176, 178, 191–92, 196, 201, 203
early years of, 164, 220
on free will, 185, 187, 223–25
Genesis studies of, 191, 193
on hierarchical order, 217, 218–21
“Il Penseroso,” 165
influence of, 163, 277, 283
in Italy, 168–70, 172, 206–7, 211, 212
and Katherine Woodcock, 197–98
“L’Allegro,” 165
and literalism, 205, 213, 247, 256–57
on love, 216–21
“Lycidas,” 165, 350
marriage to Mary Powell, see Powell, Mary
Milton on Himself, 351
as moral authority, 172–73, 176, 205, 257
papers of, 171
Paradise Lost, see Paradise Lost
pastoral elegy on the death of his friend, 170
The Reason of Church Government, 349, 350
and Republican Council of State, 196, 197, 205, 209, 213
self-confidence of, 164–65, 174, 191, 206, 257
shifting loyalty of, 228–30, 238, 256
sonnet for self-protection by, 177
“Sonnet XXIII,” 359
The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, 192–93, 220
and typology, 205
and Urania (muse), 201, 204
Milton, Mary Powell, see Powell, Mary
Minshull, Elizabeth “Betty,” 200
misogyny, 121–23, 125–27, 129–33, 136–37, 211, 220, 342
mitochondrial DNA, 248
Monica (Augustine’s mother), 83–85
and Augustine’s beliefs, 86, 87, 89, 90
and Augustine’s conversion, 94–96
Augustine’s escape from, 90–91, 93
and Augustine’s mistress, 85, 89, 92, 119
and Augustine’s sexual maturity, 82, 84–85, 114, 119
and chastity, 84, 85, 93
cult of Santa Monica, 120
and legacy of Eve, 91
return to Augustine’s household, 91–92, 93
monogenesis, 248
monotheism, 49, 88, 99, 101
Montaigne, Michel de, 231, 236
“Of Cannibals,” 360
Monty Python, 38
morality, 50, 101, 104, 299
Morgan Library, New York, 149
Mormonism, 262
mortality:
questions raised by Adam and Eve story, 9
universal fact of, 8
see also death
Moses:
angel’s story recounted to, 23
as author of Genesis stories, 37, 76, 79, 136, 206, 240, 243, 330, 361
as author of Torah, 22, 36, 70, 336
Five Books of, 22
God’s dictation to, 23, 70, 326, 361
at Mount Sinai, 23, 36, 46
Muggletonians, 196
Muhammed, role of, 7
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, California, 10
mutations, 14
myths:
and allegories, 206
ancient origin tales, 16–17, 39, 51, 238
in the Bible, 284
Greek gods and goddesses, 121–22
rewriting of, 48
treating as reality, 244
Nag Hammadi Library, 64–67, 267
Nahman, Rabbi Samuel ben, 15, 70
nakedness:
of Adam and Eve, 62, 141–44, 146–47, 149–51, 154, 156–57, 207, 212, 277, 284, 348
allegory of, 3, 9, 18, 21, 75–76, 111, 284
awareness of, 2, 9, 149, 292, 304, 345
depicted in artworks, 128–29, 137, 141–44, 146, 149–51, 154, 156–57, 212, 348
in Gilgamesh, 52, 53
idealized, 148, 154, 156–57
lack of shame in, 21, 62, 137–38, 174, 233, 292–93
of native Fuegians, 279–80
of New World natives, 9, 233–42
in Paradise Lost, 212, 277
National Anthropology Museum, Mexico City, 241
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, 137
National Herbarium, Washington, DC, 10
National Museum of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 12
Natural History Museum, Berlin, 10
natural selection, 14, 274, 279, 282, 287
nature:
and evolution, see evolution
force of, 105
imperfection of, 243
navel, significance of, 277–78
Navigius (brother of Augustine), 339
Nazi Germany:
eugenics in, 282
photographs taken in, 149
theft of artworks in, 151
Nebuchadnezzar II, 24, 25, 31, 32, 38, 41
Nebuzaradan, 31
Neckam, Alexander, 308
Nehemiah, 22
newt, rough-skinned (Triturus similans Twitty), 10
New Testament, 74–75, 205, 207, 253
Newton, Sir Isaac, 257
New World:
biblical chronology at odds with, 237, 240, 242
discovery of, 233–42
European/Christian massacres of natives in, 236
land bridge to, 237, 248
origin stories of, 316–17
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 338
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 297–98
Nineveh:
abandonment of, 43
clay tablets recovered from, 43–44, 50
siege of, 43
Ninhursag (goddess), 328
Noah, 22, 46, 47, 49, 50, 237, 244, 276, 331
Nogarola, Isotta, 133, 136
Old Testament, 205, 207
orangutans:
mental activities of, 17
see also primates
Origen Adamantius (the “Unbreakable”), 77–80, 91, 111, 252, 338
origin stories, see creation stories
Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, 145
Ovid, 86, 168
Metamorphoses, 315–16
Pajana (demiurge), 317–18
Palaeologus, Jacob, 362
paleoanthropology, 13, 14
Pandora, 121–22, 206, 239
Pan troglodytes (chimpanzees), 298
see also chimpanzees; primates
papyrus codices, 65, 334
Paradise:
dream of, 295
expulsion from, 6, 7, 50, 58, 67, 79, 98, 111, 148, 149–50, 190, 227–28, 272, 296, 310–11
freedom in, 189, 193
humans’ diet in, 68
innocence of, 195, 218
and New World discovery, 234–36
paradaesa (Persian garden), 19
regaining, 6
sex in, 217
use of term, 59, 79
see also Garden of Eden
Paradise Lost (Milton), 207–30, 278, 283
Adam and Eve depicted in, 164, 188, 191, 193, 204, 210–11, 212–30
conclusion of, 228–30
decisions in, 224–26, 227
expulsion and death in, 227–28
as five-act play, 171
gender differences perceived in, 220–21
innocence and freedom in, 223–25
inspirations for, 207–12, 213, 216–17
literal truth represented in, 163, 209, 213, 228, 247, 261
marriage and sex reflected in, 210–11, 213–14, 217–23, 226–27, 229, 250
and Milton’s dream of immortality, 191–92, 201, 203
Milton’s life reflected in, 204–5, 213–14, 215, 217, 220–21
origin story in, 208, 209–10
poetic devices in, 209
political scenes in, 209
publication of, 203, 252
and Renaissance humanism, 207–8
serpent in, 210, 211, 223, 224
theological scheme in, 229
writing of, 201–3, 204
Páramo, Luis de, 259
Parker, William Riley, 359
Pascal, Blaise, 359
Patagonia, Darwin’s visit to, 280
Patricius (Augustine’s father), 82–85, 89, 90, 94, 114
Paul, Saint:
and Adam and Eve story, 335–36
on the coming of Christ, 100
on death, 142
Epistle to Hebrews, 341
Epistle to Romans, 93–94
and first humans, 6
on gender difference, 126
on gender equality, 125
letter to Corinthians, 74
on marriage, 94
Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 13
Pelagius/Pelagians, 105–6, 107, 109, 116, 117, 118, 340, 341, 345
Pentateuch, 22, 361
Pergamon Museum, Berlin, 24
Petrarch, 210
Phillips, Edward, 176, 352
Philo of Alexandria, 76–77, 91, 336, 338
Piero della Francesca, 206
Pilbeam, David, 13
The Ascent of Man, 14–15
Pinelo, Antonio de León, 235
Pizan, Christine de, 134
Plato, 76, 79, 239
Critias, 240, 314
Republic, 77
Statesman, 314
polygenesis, 248–49
population control, 47, 48
populations, multiplication of, 248
Powell, Mary (Milton), 173–75, 186–88
children of, 187–88, 197
death of, 188, 356
marriage of Milton and, 163, 173–74, 178, 180–81, 193, 204, 214, 220, 352, 355
and Milton’s writings on divorce, 181, 194
return to her family home, 175, 186, 187
return to Milton’s household, 186–87, 226
Royalist family of, 174, 175, 176, 186, 187
Powell, Richard, 173–74, 187
alpha males, 288, 289, 291, 298, 301
as degenerate humans, 233
evolution of, 12–14, 270–73, 280–81, 297–98
and hominins, 12, 13–14
Kibale Chimpanzee Project, 285–302
lacking knowledge of good and evil, 295
and Last Common Ancestor, 14, 287, 298, 364
mate-guarding, 291
mental activities of, 17
resemblance to humans, 294, 296, 364
survival strategy of, 291–92
Pritchard, James B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 313
Prometheus, 121, 206, 239
pterodactyls, 267, 268
punishments:
evolution motivated by, 297
in Garden of Eden, 2–3, 73, 251, 272, 294
questions about, 255–56
spiritual, 243
threat of, 250
Purchas, Samuel, 364
Quakers, 196, 200
Qur’an, Adam and Eve story interpreted in, 6–7, 121, 346
race/racism, 248–49
and eugenics, 282
and genetics, 282
and natural selection theory, 282
questions raised by Adam and Eve story, 9
Raim
ondi, Marcantonio, Modi, 169
Ranters, 196
Raphael (angel), 213, 214, 216, 218–19, 224, 228–29
Raphael (artist), 206, 277
Rassam, Hormuzd, 43
Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke, 330–31
redemption, 71, 104, 111, 144–45, 205
religious wars, 231–32, 238, 253, 360
Renaissance:
Adam and Eve story interpreted in, 7, 9, 149, 152, 252, 256, 261
art in, 149, 152, 154, 159, 206, 212, 213, 249, 250, 261
classical beauty depicted in, 154, 156, 159–60, 190
humanism in, 9, 207–8, 238
intellectual investigations in, 9, 149, 250
in Italy, 190
poetry of, 163, 209, 216–17, 249
recovery of ancient Greek and Latin works in, 156, 239–40
travelers in, 42
as turning point, 206
reproduction:
alternative ways of, 7
“be fruitful and multiply,” 14, 47, 60, 107, 110–11, 180, 253, 308–9, 343
and marriage, 85–86, 118, 124, 180, 217
and sex, 107, 110, 114, 115–16, 118, 217, 293, 345–46
“vital fire” in, 108, 341
Roman Breviary, 120
Roman Empire, 83
in Africa, 97
Romanesque churches, artworks in, 144
Romano, Giulio, 169
Rome:
catacombs of, 139–41
Christianity in, 141
origin stories of, 314–16
persecution in, 77, 240
sack of, 97
statuary of, 141–42, 148, 156, 160–61
Rosetta Stone, 43
Ross, Alexander, 11, 218
Russian Revolution, 190
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (extinct), 10, 13–14
St. Albans Psalter, 148–49
St. Bavo’s Cathedral, Ghent, 152
St. George’s Hill, Surrey, England, 194–96
Santa Monica, feast day of, 120
Sarah, 296
Sardanapalus (Assyrian king), 43
Satan:
as angel, 6, 208
as the Evil One, 131
humans lured into evil by, 6, 7, 131, 221–23
in Life of Adam and Eve, 69, 71, 73
in Paradise Lost, 210, 228
as Prince of Darkness, 71
rebellion of, 208
and serpent, 70, 71, 131, 133, 223
and witchcraft, 132
Savonarola, Girolamo, 349
Schiele, Egon, 156
Schleirmacher, Friedrich, 338
Scotus, John Duns, 308
Sedrach (visionary), 73
Sendak, Maurice, 142
serpent:
in Adam and Eve story, 63, 70, 137, 148, 153, 223–24, 305, 307
as allegory, 76–77
coupling with woman, 131
and death, 128
in Gilgamesh, 56, 63
as hero of the story, 16
myths and legends about, 254
punishment of, 2–3, 243
removing human hope of eternal life, 63
and Satan, 70, 71, 131, 133, 223
talking, 75
Testimony of Truth from perspective of, 66, 67
woman tempted by, 2, 128, 129, 130, 135–36, 208