San José transit observation (1769), 183–186
as natural scientist, 9, 98–99
death, 206–210
Cassini analyzes San José expedition data, 212
Hornsby analyzes San José data, 214–215
as greatly influential, 98, 223
Charles III, king of Spain, 82–83
Christian VII, king of Denmark, 118, 120–125, 189–194
Chronometers. See Nautical chronometers
Clarke, Adam, 224
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 53
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1, 224
Compasses, magnetic, 91, 102, 119, 127
Connoissance des mouvemens célestes . . . (Lalande), 62
Cook, James
scurvy prevention innovations, 139–140, 167–168, 223
Tahiti expedition (1769), 88, 138–152, 163–167, 169–172
tests Nautical Almanac, 142–143
transit observed, 173–175
after-mission to New Zealand, Batavia, 195–203
Cassini analyzes expedition data, 212
Hornsby analyzes expedition data, 214–215, 217–218
post-transit commissions, honors, 222–223
dies in Hawaii battle, 223
Copenhagen, Denmark, 189–194
Culminations (astronomical), 206, 209
D’Albert de Luynes, Paul, 192
Dalrymple, Alexander, 85–86, 88–89, 195–196
De Croix, Carlos Francisco, 107–108
Delisle, Joseph-Nicolas, 6, 10, 52
Demidov, Pavel Grigoryevich, 17
Demonstratio Idioma Ungarorum et Lapponum Idem Esse (Sajnovics), 193
D’Éon de Beaumont, Charles . . ., 57–60
Dixon, Jeremiah
Cape Town transit observed, 36–38, 40
Sumatra expedition (1761), 26–34
on Sumatra expeditions, 26–34
surveys Pennsylvania–Maryland border, 173, 222
Doldrums, 143–144
Dønnes, Norway, 193
Doz, Vicente de
as Spanish observer on San José mission, 105, 107, 110, 113
San José transit observation, 181–186
at Chappe’s death, 210
Dunthorne, Richard, 78, 141–142
East India Company (British), 27, 40, 42
East India Company (Dutch), 34–36, 38, 202
Easter Island, 100
Eclipse timing for longitude
Jovian, 22, 104, 170, 205–206
lunar, 156, 207–208
solar, 45–46, 89
Electrical machine by Ramsden, 140–141
Elizabeth Petrova, empress of Russia, 13–14, 49–50
Endeavour ship for Tahiti expedition (1769)
crew, observers, stores, 92–93, 139
scientific gear manifest, 91
embarks to Pacific, 87–88
life on board, 163–167
Madeira Island, 137
in Strait of Magellan, 150–152
rams Great Barrier Reef, 199–201
Rio de Janeiro, 145–150
scurvy prevention, 139–140, 167–168
dysentery fatalities, 202–203
after-mission, 195–197
compared to NASA Apollo 15 mission, 221
Equator crossing hazing, 145
Euler, Leonhard, 98, 213
Exoplanetary research, 225–227
Ferguson, James, 81, 83
Fort Venus, Tahiti expedition, 171–175, 195
Fossils, 9, 98–99
Franklin, Benjamin, 31, 84, 99, 141
Franz I, emperor of Holy Roman Empire, 8–9
Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, 8, 50, 122
Galvez, José de, 180–181
Gentil de la Galaisière, Jean-Baptiste (Le Gentil), 110
George III, king of England, 59, 61, 84
German observations of Venus transit (1761), 54, 92
Gore, John
Tahiti expedition officer on Endeavour, 92
experiences Strait of Magellan, 150
Rio de Janeiro, 146–147
transit observed NW of Tahiti, 175
voyage after Tahiti, 196
Green, Charles
Barbados longitude testing, 68–72
as Tahiti expedition astronomer (1769), 89, 137, 171–172
Tahiti transit observed, 173–175
tests Nautical Almanac, 142–143, 163–164
Tierra del Fuego experiences, 150–154, 163
data analyzed by Hornsby, 214, 217–218
death, 203
Greenslade, William, 166
Greenwich as time reference point, 64
Halley, Edmund
champions Venus transits, 80, 191
inspires near mutiny, 88
observes Mercury transit, 41–42
projects accuracy for parallaxes, 214, 219
Halleyan pole, 10–11
H-alpha spectral line, 226
Harrison, John
designs revolutionary chronometer, marine watch, 59
designs revolutionary nautical chronometer, 43, 66–68, 221–222
marine watch tested on Barbados, 69–72
wins Longitude Prize, 79
Harrison, William, 43, 70–72
Hell (Höll), Maximilian
and Chappe, 9–11
as Jesuit, 10, 117–118, 162
natural history collection, 188
Vardø expedition preparations, voyage, 81, 117–136
Vardø life, 157–159
Vardø transit observed, 160–162
withholds results of observations, 190–193, 218
Vardø data analyzed, 212–215
Lalande disputes data, feuds, 192–193, 212, 218–220
HMS Dolphin
discovery mission to St. George’s/Tahiti, 89–90, 92
fires on natives, 93, 168–169
in Strait of Magellan, 150
HMS Princess Louisa, 68
HMS Ramillies disaster, 25–26
HMS Seahorse frigate
embarks on Mason, Dixon’s, Sumatra expedition (1761), 27–29
attacked, damaged, by French L’Grand, 29–33
re-embarks on Sumatra expedition, 34, 36
HMS Swallow, 150
HMS Tartar, 70
Horloge Marine 2 by Berthoud, 68
Hornsby, Thomas
analyzes transit data, 214–215, 217–218
projects locations for transit missions, 81–82
Horrebow, Christian, 191
Horrebow, Peder, 188–189, 193
Hudson’s Bay expedition (1769), 81, 91, 217, 223–224
Humboldt Current, 164
Inquisition in Mexico City, 108
Jail fever. See Typhus (jail fever)
Jakarta, Indonesia. See Batavia
Jamestown, St. Helena. See St. Helena Venus transit expedition
Jesuits (Society of Jesus)
astronomers Hell (Höll), Sajnovics, Boscovich, 82, 117, 162
expelled from Spanish territories, 107, 112, 178
Journal des Sçavans, 218–219
Kepler, Johannes, 6
Kepler spacecraft, 227
La Concepcíon packet boat, 111–113
Lake Baikal, Siberia. See Russia’s observations from Lake Baikal (1769)
Lalande, Jérôme
introduced, 54–55
as clearinghouse for transit data, 53, 190–191
collaborates with Maskelyne, 61–62
feuds with Hell, 218–220
shown Harrison’s chronometers, 67–68
and spy d’Éon, 58–61
suspects Vardø data, 192–193, 212
data analyzed, 213, 219
Lapp and Hungarian languages, 158, 192, 193
Lathorp, John, 220, 222
Le Nouveau Mercure ship, 100
Le Prince, Jean-Baptiste, 23
Liechtenstein, prince of, 9
Linnaeus, Carl, 34–35, 128–129
Lomonosov, Mi
khail, 14, 52, 185
Longitude
accuracy needed for ship navigation, 25–26, 33–34
anchored by Greenwich prime meridian, 64
Barbados tests, 68–72
calculated using Nautical Almanac, 79–80, 142–143
difficulties in Vardø, 156
Harrison’s chronometers, 66–67
Maskelyne’s methods, 42–43, 61–63
from Mercury transit measurements, 198
unreliability causes ship wrecks, 72–73
See also Chronometers; Eclipse timing for longitude; Lunar longitude methods; The Nautical Almanac
Longitude Act of 1714 of Britain, 26, 70
Longitude Prize, 43, 69–70, 71–72, 222
Louis XIV, king of France, 53
Louis XV, king of France, 57–58, 92
Lunar longitude methods
of Maskelyne, 26, 42, 63
Nautical Almanac produced, 77–78
vs. nautical chronometers, 66, 68–72, 221–222
for nautical navigation, 62–63
as uncertain, difficult, 71–72
as essential for British sea power, 222
Lunar position forecast, 63
Lyons, Israel, 78, 142
Madeira Island, 137–141
Maori of New Zealand, 197–198
Mapson, John, 77–78
Maria Theresa, empress of Holy Roman Empire, 8–9, 118, 119, 124
Marine chairs, 64–65, 68–69, 104
Marine watches
created by Harrison, 59, 67–68
prototypes by Berthoud, 67–68, 73–74, 102, 104
tested on Barbados, 69–72
Martin, Benjamin, 6
Maskelyne, Nevil
as Astronomer Royal, 77, 80
Barbados longitude testing, 68–72
collaborates with Lalande, 61–62
lunar longitude methods, 63
methods as staple of navigation, 222
Nautical Almanac transforms navigation, 77–80, 141–142
solar parallax analysis, 55–56
St. Helena transit expedition (1761), 38–42
Mason, Charles
Cape Town transit observed (1761), 36–38, 40
leads Sumatra expedition (1761), 26–34
on St. Helena with Maskelyne, 39–41
surveys Pennsylvania–Maryland border, 173, 222
Mayer, Tobias, 63
Medina, Salvador de
San José transit observation, 181–186
as Spanish observer on San José mission, 105, 107, 109–110, 113
at Chappe’s death, 210
Cassini analyzes, reports on, data, 212
Mercury transit, 41, 198–199
Merlin sloop, 43
Mexico City, 106–109
Misión Estero de San José del Cabo. See San José del Cabo, Baja, expedition
Monkhouse, Jonathan
Endeavour rams reef, 200
in Tahiti, 163–164
in Tierra del Fuego, 153
transit observation NW of Tahiti, 175
Monkhouse, William
in Tahiti, 170
transit observation NW of Tahiti, 175
Montre Marine No. 3, 73–74
Morin, Jean-Baptiste, 66
Moskstraumen oceanic vortex, 132
NASA Apollo program, 221
Natural history, 9, 99, 109, 188
Natural science (esp. botany and zoology)
practiced by Banks, Sollander, on Tahiti expedition, 138, 139–140, 144
Tierra del Fuego experiences, 150–151
The Nautical Almanac (Maskelyne)
produced, 78–80
tested, 141–143, 163–164
used for Hudson’s Bay, Tahiti, expeditions (1769), 91
Nautical chronometers
designed by Harrison, 43, 59
copied by Berthoud, 67–68, 73–74, 102
vs. lunar longitude methods, 66, 68–72, 221–222
sea watches (see Marine watches)
shown to Lalande by Harrison, 67–68
tested, 68–72, 73–74, 102
Navigation
as central to eighteenth-century science, 53
lunar longitude vs. chronometers, 66, 68–72, 221–222
Maskelyne’s longitude methods, 42, 61–63
revolutionized by Harrison’s chronometers, 59
See also Longitude
New Zealand
Maoris attack Cook’s shore parties, 197–198
mapped accurately by Cook, 198, 199
Newton, Isaac, 66, 98, 173
Niebuhr, Carsten, 127, 135, 159
Nöel, Alexandre-Jean
as Chappe’s expedition artist, 102, 113
with Chappe at death, 210
stricken by San José typhus, 207
Northern lights observed from Vardø, 158, 192, 194
Norway, 81, 125–136. See also Vardø, Norway, expedition
Observatio Transitus Veneris . . . (Hell and Sajnovics), 192, 194
Observatories
Barbados, constructed by Maskelyne, Green, 70
Cape Town, constructed by Mason, Dixon, 36–37
Misión Estero de San José by Chappe, Medina, Doz, 181–183
Tahiti, 173
Tobolsk, constructed by Chappe, 20–24
Vardø, constructed by Hell, Sajnovics, 134–135, 155–156, 159
Observatory of Paris, 53–55, 208
Observatory of Prague, 119–120
Observatory of University of Vienna, 9–10
Parkinson, Sydney
in Rio, 148
as Tahiti expedition artist, 138, 199
death, 202
Pauly, Jean
as Chappe’s astronomical assistant, 102
in Vera Cruz, 104
San José expedition, 107, 113, 180
San José transit observed, 186
on Chappe’s final days, 206–210
Pembroke ship, 86–87
Pendulum clocks
length of seconds differ, 156
San José mission, 181–183
settings, calibrations, 28
Siberia transit measurements, 47
Tahiti transit observed, 173
used for eclipse-longitude measurements, 45
Pericu nation, Baja, 178–179, 184
Peter the Great, czar of Russia, 51, 85
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1771, 214
Pingré, Alexandre Guy
advocates Easter Island expedition (1769), 99–100
observes transit on Rodrigues (1761), 55
solar parallax measurements, 213, 218
Planetary orbital paths and distances, 6, 141, 215
Planmann, Anders, 192
Portuguese distrust of Britain, 145–149
Positive lightning, 110
Priestly, Joseph, 223
Quadrants (astronomical)
described, 3, 21
angular separation measurements, 28
on Endeavour for Tahiti expedition (1769), 91
and navigating by lunar measurements, 42
of Niebuhr, 127, 135, 159
stolen by Tahitian, 171–172
on Vardø expedition, 120
Ramsden, Jesse, 91, 140–141, 142
Religious/political influences
on scientific discoveries, 98–99
on Venus transit expeditions, 82–83
Rime of the Ancient Mariner (Coleridge), 224
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 145–150
Robison, John, 43
Rolim de Moura, Antonio, 145–149
Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, 52–53, 72, 99–100, 211
Rumovsky, Stephan, 51
Rurutu (Ohetiroa), 196–197
Russia’s observations from locations near Lake Baikal (1769), 14, 51, 218
Sajnovics, Joannes
intrigue of Denmark’s royal court, 189–194
as Jesuit, 117, 162
Vardø expedition (1769), 117–136, 160–162
life in Vardø, 157–159
on other arctic transit astronomers, 188–189
writes book on Lapp/Hungarian languages, 193
Hornsby analyzes transit data, 215
Sami (Lapland dialect), 158, 192, 193
San José del Cabo, Baja, expedition (1769)
crew, observers, 1–3
voyage by sea, cross-country, 101–110, 112–118
Misión Estero observatory site, 178–183, 205–215
precise latitude/longitude determined by Chappe, 208
transit preparations, observations, 181–186
typhus/jail fever deadly epidemic, 114, 178–179, 186, 205–209
Cassini analyzes expedition data, 212
data analyzed by Hornsby, 214–215
Scanderoon, 32
Schleswig-Holstein dukedom, 120–122
Scurvy, 139–140, 167–168, 223
Sea clocks. See Nautical chronometers Short, James
advocates for Pacific mission (1769), 81, 83–84
as expert telescope maker, 91, 173
Siberia expedition (1761)
sanctioned by Elizabeth of Russia, 13–14
voyage, 6, 11–19
observatory constructed, 20–23
Chappe’s solar eclipse observation (1761), 45–46
Tobolsk as Halleyan pole, 10–11
Tobolsk flooded, 24
transit observed, 46–49
Sisson, Jeremiah, 65
Slade, Thomas, 84–87
Slavery conditions in Cape Town, 35
Smith, James, 29–31
Solander, Daniel Carl
as naturalist with Tahiti expedition, 138–140, 144
Tierra del Fuego experiences, 150–154, 163
in Tahiti, 169–171
transit observation, 174
Solar distance
accuracy enabled by Venus transit (1769), 6–7, 191, 212
as astronomical unit (AU), 118
based on angular shift, 41
to Mercury, 198
using short/long transit times, 100
See also Solar parallax
Solar eclipses. See Eclipse timing for longitude
Solar parallax
described, 41
calculated by Pingré, others, 213, 218
Cassini’s analysis from 1769 observations, 212–213
differing analyses, 54–56
and Lalande–Hell feud, 218–220
Cassini’s rounded-off version of transit calculations, 213–214
Hornsby analyzes transit data, 214–215
See also Solar distance
Solar system. See Planetary orbital paths and distances; Solar distance
Southern Pacific expedition (1769). See Tahiti Venus transit expedition (1769)
Spain
as brutal colonial force in Mexico, 106–107, 180–181
takes over, delays, San José expedition (1769), 101–103
Spöring, Herman, 163–164, 174, 175
St. George’s Island. See Tahiti