New York Times, 292–93
New York Times Magazine, 287
Nobel Committee, 170–71, 230–31
Nobel Prize, xii, xiv, 19, 31–32, 39, 41, 74, 84, 94, 106, 124, 125, 143, 156, 159, 170–71, 186, 190, 202, 209, 218, 219–20, 222–23, 229–32, 235, 241, 265, 268, 270, 271–72, 293, 300, 305, 307, 310
nodes, 54
Noether, Emmy, 199–200
Noether’s theorem, 199–200, 204
nonzero energy, 174
nonzero probabilities, 52, 55, 72
nonzero spin, 120
North Pole, 203–4
nuclear democracy, 291–92, 305–6
nuclear physics, 20, 46–47, 67–68, 72, 74, 76–95, 108, 122, 163–64, 178, 194, 239, 273–74, 283
nuclei, atomic, 84, 107, 294
nucleons, 178–79
numbers:
atomic, 66
complex, 116
as integers, 100, 175, 178–79, 291
negative, 97, 103
prime, 284, 285–86
quantum, 200–201
number theory, 9
Oak Ridge Laboratory, 90
Occhialini, Giuseppe, 106–7
Oersted, Hans Christian, 28
Olum, Paul, 68
omega-minus particle, 290, 292, 293
Onnes, Kamerlingh, 170–72, 174, 263
Onsager, Lars, 186, 190–92
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 78–80, 90–91, 92, 105–6, 122, 148, 149, 154, 155, 156, 241
orbital gravitation, 203–4
O-ring failure, xv, 309
Osheroff, Douglas, 227
parallel processors, 276–77, 283
parity flips, 212
parity nonconservation, 204–5, 206, 207–8, 210–17
particle accelerators, 154, 169, 200, 292–300, 305, 312
particles, subatomic, 4–5, 28–35, 38, 39–42, 113–14, 120–21, 133–40, 166, 173–79, 193–94, 197–98, 200–202, 205–6, 208–11, 220, 263–64, 287–309, 315–16
decay of, 104–5, 193–94, 200–201, 205–6, 207, 208, 210, 211–15
paths of, 14–17, 48–50, 52–58, 65, 69–70, 73–74, 97, 99, 100–104, 107, 117–18, 126–28, 145–46, 153, 154, 176, 178–79, 185, 193–94, 210–12, 256–57, 309–10
strange, 196, 200–201, 202, 205–6, 273, 291–92, 305
see also specific particles
partons, 295–96, 298, 299–300
Pasteur, Louis, 296
path-integral formalism, xiii, 73, 210–12, 255–57, 283–84, 309–10
pattern recognition, 277–78
Pauli, Wolfgang, 39–40, 100–101, 105–6, 110–11, 139–40, 209
Pauli exclusion principle, 100–101, 105–6
phase transitions, 116–17, 190–92
phenomenological model, 180–82
philosophy, 71, 276
photons, 28–32, 114, 130–31, 134, 137, 201–2, 246–47, 249, 260, 301–2, 303
Physical Review, 20, 98, 152–53, 200–201, 290, 292
physical signatures, 240
physics:
astro-, 20, 82–85, 106–7, 239, 240, 255–61
classical, 24, 27–28, 30–31, 37–38, 47, 48, 52–53, 56, 58, 62, 63, 71, 72–73, 100, 131, 142, 173, 224–25, 238, 239, 243, 245–46, 265, 278–81, 282
of dense materials, 172–79, 181–82, 183, 190–91
experimental, 19–20, 25–26, 30, 35, 38, 41, 66, 67–68, 81, 85–86, 168–69, 171–72, 193–96, 208, 209, 235–38, 245, 283, 293–300, 312–13
formalism in, 49–50, 59–65, 73, 97, 99, 117–18, 126–28, 130–46, 150–54, 158, 176, 178–79, 185, 196, 210–12, 214–16, 219, 256–57, 299–300, 309–10
kluges used in, 198, 210, 215–16, 301, 310
laws of, 13–14, 30–32, 192, 193, 199–200, 209–10, 223–24, 241–42, 252, 255–57, 269–72, 278–81, 282, 293, 310–13
nuclear, 20, 46–47, 67–68, 72, 74, 76–95, 108, 122, 163–64, 178, 194, 239, 273–74, 283
paradox and inconsistency in, 23, 30–32, 34–35, 36, 70, 71–73, 75, 88
particle, see particles, subatomic
theoretical, 39–42, 66, 68–69, 73–75, 85–86, 110–11, 118–19, 141–42, 168–69, 193–97, 208, 234–38, 263–64, 283, 286, 287–305, 311–13
unitary approaches in, 145, 178–79
see also quantum mechanics
Physics Letters, 290
Physics of Star Trek, The (Krauss), 265
pions, 205, 210, 212–13
Planck’s constant, 26–27, 63
plutonium, 84, 86
Pocono conference (1948), 144–46, 157
point particles, 100–102
Politzer, David, 306–7, 312
polyhedra, 289
polymers, 271
Popov, Victor, 304
positive energy, 102–3, 114, 174
positive probabilities, 53–54
positrons, 106–7, 110–11, 113–14, 131–40, 144–46, 197–98
potential energy, 15–16, 49–50, 257–59, 309–13
predictions, 71–72, 102–3, 118, 128–29, 138–40, 150–54, 158–59, 201–2, 246, 252–54
prime factorization, 285–86
prime numbers, 284, 285–86
“primeval atom” model, 240
Princeton University, 22–23, 30–32, 36–50, 59–65, 66, 67–68, 74, 77, 79, 81, 96, 164
“Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics, The” (Feynman), 74, 97–98
probability, 41, 48, 52, 53, 54–58, 62–64, 69–70, 72, 97, 99, 116–17, 145–46, 183, 278–79, 280, 283–84
probability amplitudes, 54–58, 62–64, 69–70, 99, 116–17
probability waves, 183
processors, computer, 276–77
Progress in Theoretical Physics, 148–49
proportionality, 60–61
protons, 66, 100, 103, 104–5, 173, 178–79, 207, 291, 294–95, 297–98, 300, 302, 305, 312
pseudoscalar (P) interaction, 212
psychology, 14, 16, 59, 65
Putnam score, 21–22
Pythagorean theorem, 9
quanta, 28
quantized resistance, 271
quantum bits (qubits), 283–85
quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 305–9
quantum electrodynamics (QED), 97–159, 169–232
absolute zero in, 170, 174–75, 185–86
absorption theory in, 28–32, 38, 69, 110–20 (span), 114, 121, 126, 130–31
altered-loop configurations in, 137–39
amplitude weight in, 63–64
anti-electrons in, 105–7
APS meeting on (1948), 143–44, 157
atomic structure in, 171–79, 181–82
axial vector (A) interaction in, 212–16, 292
beta decay in, 194, 208, 210, 213–15
Bethe’s finite calculations on, 122–23, 125–26, 129, 139–40, 148, 154
Bohr’s contributions to, 61–62, 100, 112, 119–20, 145–46, 173, 186–87
Bose-Einstein condensation in, 175–76, 180, 189
bosons in, 102, 175, 176, 182, 184
classical electromagnetism compared with, 47, 48, 49, 52–53, 56, 58, 62, 63, 69, 71, 72–73, 100, 131, 142, 173, 224–25, 243
collapsed systems in, 71–72
conference on (1947), 122–23, 124, 143
conservation in, 199–200, 204–5, 209–10, 215–16
Dirac’s contributions to, 59–65, 97, 102, 103–7, 108, 110–12, 114–16, 118–19, 120, 121, 124, 131, 138, 157, 158, 192, 210, 2
11, 231
dynamic evolution of, 23–35, 38–42, 47–75, 154–59
Dyson’s contributions to, 148–54
electromagnetic fields in, 48–50, 52–53, 197–98, 245–46
electron activity in, 24–25, 54–58, 97, 100–107, 111, 113–14, 126, 127, 128–40, 137, 143–44, 154–56, 157, 173–74, 181–82, 186–88, 190, 197–98, 208–10, 212–13
electron-positron (particle-antiparticle) pairs in, 113–14, 133–40, 137, 197–98
energy states in, 49–50, 102–6, 113, 125, 126, 151, 170–74, 177, 181–88, 189
experimental data on, 69, 70–73, 106–7, 118–30, 138–39, 148–59, 169, 173, 180–81, 185–86, 207–17, 222–23
“Feynman rules” in, 153, 304
Feynman’s contributions to, 58, 59–65, 66, 68–75, 86, 97–107, 108, 113, 115–18, 120, 121–22, 124–59, 161, 163, 164, 169–210, 229–32, 238, 246, 288–89, 300, 304, 305
Feynman space-time diagrams for, 107, 129–40, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 144–46, 148–54, 169, 173, 193
finite calculations in, 138–40, 150–51, 158–59, 246
formalism in approach to, 49–50, 59–65, 73, 97, 99, 117–18, 126–28, 130–46, 150–54, 158, 176, 178–79, 185, 196, 210–12, 214–16, 219, 256–57, 299–300, 309–10
free particles in, 176–78
frequency shifts in, 119–23, 124, 126
gaseous states in, 170–76
Gell-Mann’s contributions to, 195–208, 212, 214–17, 218, 288–89
ground state configuration in, 183–84, 185, 186, 189
Hamiltonian approach to, 158
Heisenberg’s contributions to, 26–30, 65, 105–6, 111, 112, 115–16, 133, 182
helium properties in, 101, 170–76, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 189–90, 288, 294–95
hydrogen properties in, 81, 84–85, 119–23, 126, 174, 201–2
infinite higher-order corrections in, 118, 121–22, 124–29, 131, 139–40, 150–51, 154, 158–59, 197, 231, 302
“integrating out” process in, 73–74, 110, 127–28
interference patterns in, 25–26, 54–55, 71, 174, 175
irrationality of, 51–58
irrotational states in, 186–87, 289
kinetic vs. potential energy in, 49–50
K-mesons (Kaons) in, 205–6, 207, 210
Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in, 191–92
K-zero particles in, 201–2
Lagrangian formalism in, 59–65, 97, 117–18, 157
Lamb shift in, 119–23, 124, 125, 128, 129, 139, 140, 148
Landau’s contributions to, 181–82, 184, 187–88, 190
least action principle in, 14–17, 49–50, 56–57, 62, 69, 73–75, 97–98, 126–27
least time principle in, 11–14, 18, 57–58
lowest-order predictions in, 128–29, 150–54, 246
for low temperature states, 170–74, 181–85, 187–88
macro-vs. microscopic levels of, 40–41, 71, 171–79, 180, 181–82
magnetic field lines in, 190–91
magnetic moment of electrons in, 128–29, 143–44
mass-energy conversion in, 102, 103–6, 113, 125, 126, 151, 177
mathematical analysis of, 48, 49, 69, 74–75, 86, 112, 122–23, 125–26, 129–30, 131, 138–40, 145, 148–59, 169, 185–86, 188, 199–200, 211–12, 246
measurement theory in, 70–73
mesons in, 154–55, 169, 178, 193, 200, 205–6, 207, 210
negative energy in, 102–3
neutrinos in, 154–56, 194, 210–11, 213, 214–16, 219–20, 222–23
neutron-electron interactions in, 154–56
neutrons in, 86, 100, 154–56, 194, 201, 210, 213
Noether’s theorem for, 199–200, 204
nonrelativistic approach to, 122–23, 125–26
nucleons in, 178–79
observer problem in, 71–73
odd vs. even (left-right or weak-strong) parities in, 204–5, 206, 207–8, 210–17
orbital angular momentum in, 186–88, 190
parity flips in, 212
particle decay in, 104–5, 193–94, 200–201, 205–6, 207, 208, 210, 211–15
particle paths in, 48–50, 52–58, 65, 69–70, 73–74, 97, 99, 100–104, 107, 117–18, 126–28, 145–46, 153, 154, 176, 178–79, 185, 193–94, 210–12, 256–57, 309–10
path-integral formalism in, 73, 210–12, 309–10
Pauli exclusion principle in, 100–101, 145–46
phase transitions in, 116–17, 190–92
phenomenological model for, 180–82
photons in, 28–32, 114, 130–31, 134, 137, 201–2, 246, 301
pions in, 205, 210, 212–13
point particles in, 100–102
polarities in, 128–29, 143–44, 203–4, 207–8, 212
positrons in (anti-particles), 106–7, 110–11, 113–14, 131–32, 144–46
predictions of reality based on, 71–72, 102–3, 118, 128–29, 138–40, 150–54, 158–59, 201–2, 246
probabilities in, 48, 52, 53, 54–58, 62–64, 69–70, 97, 99, 116–17, 145–46, 183
probability amplitudes in, 54–58, 62–64, 69–70, 99, 116–17
proportionality in, 60–61
protons in, 66, 100, 103, 104–5, 173, 178–79, 207
pseudoscalar (P) interaction in, 212
quantum coherence in, 180, 285
quantum number in, 200–201
quantum state in, 65, 100–104, 183–84, 186–87, 188
quantum theory compared with, 180, 200–201, 243, 246–47, 249, 280, 285, 288–89, 300, 301, 302–3, 312
relativity theory and, 69, 97, 99–100, 102, 110–12, 114, 117, 118, 119, 122–23, 125–26, 130, 131, 148, 159, 246–47, 249
renormalization in, 125, 138–39, 150–51, 197–98, 231
rest mass in, 125, 126, 151
scalar (S) interaction in, 212, 213, 215
Schrödinger equation for, 19, 51–52, 63, 65, 69, 97, 119–20, 121, 158, 161, 173, 188
“sea of negative-energy” electrons (“Dirac sea”) in, 104–7, 114, 126, 127, 131, 157
self-energy in, 23–24, 30, 41–42, 111–12, 115–23, 124, 136–39, 137, 150–51, 159
speed of light in, 133
spin as factor in, 24–25, 100–102, 116, 120–21, 128–29, 174–75, 186–88, 190, 209, 210–11
strong vs. weak interactions in, 194, 201, 204–17, 219, 222–23
“sum over paths” approach in, 65, 73–74, 97, 99, 117–18, 126–28, 145–46, 153, 176, 178–79, 185, 256–57
superconductivity in, 170–72, 179, 188–89, 190, 271
superfluidity in, 171–92
symmetries in, 198–200, 202–11, 215–16, 302–3
system states in, 48
tensor (T) interaction in, 212, 213, 215
test wave functions in, 188–89
theory of, xii, 23–35, 38–42, 47–75, 154–59
time direction in, xii, 34–35, 38–42, 47–48, 107, 129–40, 144–46, 148–54, 169, 173, 193
Tomonaga’s contributions to, 148–49, 152, 229–30, 231, 304
two-component neutrino formalism in, 215–16
two-dimensional systems in, 192
“two fluid” model in, 185–86
V-A (vector-axial vector interaction in, 212–16, 292
vacuum polarization in, 113–15, 136–40, 137, 150–51, 156–57, 159
variational method for, 188–89
vector (V) interaction in, 212–16, 292
vortex lines in, 187–88, 189–90
wave functions in, 52–56, 70, 117–20, 173, 182–84, 185, 188–89
Wheeler’s contributions to, 48–50
zero-order predictions in, 102–3, 118
quantum mechanics, 23–35, 51–75, 238–313
algorithms for, 273, 278–79, 283, 284, 286
antimatter in, xii, 41
asymptomatic freedom in, 306–7, 309, 312, 319
attractive vs. repulsive forces in, 259–60
black holes in, 249–51, 252
bosons in, 102, 175, 176, 182, 184, 303–5
branes (higher dimensional objects) in, 253–54
classical physics and, 238, 239, 243, 245–46, 265, 278–81, 282
computer analysis of, 308–9
computers based on, 273–86
consistency of, 251–52
cosmological interpretation of, 255–61
decouplets in, 290
deep inelastic scattering in, 298–99
dimensions of universe in, 251–54
eightfold way in, 289–91
Einstein’s contributions to, 6–7, 19, 22, 27, 39–42, 60, 93, 95, 97, 102, 175, 238, 239–40, 248, 251, 280–81
electron-proton collisions in, 297–98
electrons in, 294, 297–98, 301
electroweak unification in, 304–6, 312
energy dissipation in, 247–48 281–282, 295–300, 310
energy v. matter in, 238–39, 250–51, 257–60, 306–7, 309–13
event horizons in, 249–50
in expanding universe, 239–40, 257–60
experimental results in, 240, 252–54, 257, 260–61, 290–300, 304–9, 310, 312–13
Faddev-Popov ghost bosons in, 304
Feynman’s contributions to, 18, 19–20, 243–62, 273–86, 288, 289, 300, 304–5, 306, 307–13, 319
Feynman space-time diagrams for, 252–53
Feynman test for, 309–13
field theory and, 238–39, 247, 252–53, 261–62, 287–88, 311–13
finite theory (effective theory) in, 310–12
flat space in, 258–60
formalism in approach to, 299–300
gauge bosons in, 303–5
gauge invariance in, 301–5
Gell-Mann’s contributions to, 243–44, 256–57, 287–305, 312
geometry of, 244–45, 255–56, 258–59
Glashow-Weinberg theory of, 304–5, 310
gravitational contraction in, 83, 238–62, 288–89, 303–4