widow-companion of, 200, 217
Denmark, 7, 238, 247
départements, creation of, 182
départements réunis, 242
Dépôt de la Guerre et de la Marine, 151
Descartes, René, 75, 245, 320–21
Desierto de las Palmas, 272
d’Espira, Mont, 192, 196
Dewey Decimal System, 136
Dezauche, A.-M., assistant on Méchain’s second Spanish expedition, 268, 272, 273, 281–84
Diario de Barcelona, 62
Dictionary of Atheists (Lalande, ed.), 309, 310–11, 390
Diderot, Denis, 33, 78
Directory, 101, 191, 235
doigt, 87, 261
Dombey, Joseph, 238–39
Domitia, 229
Don Quixote, see History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote, The, 39
draft, military, 42, 143
Duchamp, Marcel, 343
Ducreux, Joseph, 80
Dugommier, Jacques-Coquille, 116, 122–23, 368
Dunkerque, 45, 158, 210, 250, 288
British siege of, 97
Delambre’s latitude measurement at, 183, 187–89
at north end of meridian arc, 13, 21, 36, 89, 90, 93, 96, 101, 121, 181, 245, 252, 297
duodecimal system, 86–87
du Plessis school, 16
Du Pont de Nemours, 149
Duverny (blind lecturer on justice and metric system), 254
earth:
as basis for length of meter, 1, 3, 19, 87–96
as belonging to all humanity, 1, 90, 253
calculations for measurement of, 19
circumference of, 91, 243
curvature of, 59, 93, 245–47, 249–52, 253, 297–98, 303–6, 333–34
distance from moon to, 77
formation of, 25
mapping of, 244
satellite surveys of, 7, 22
shape of, 77, 90, 92–93, 94, 381
tilt of, 108, 117
eclipses:
lunar, 41
solar, 275
ecliptic:
definition of, 108
Méchain’s measuring of, 108, 117
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, 42
Ecole Normale, 257
Ecole Polytechnique, 312
economics, first practitioners of, 130, 240
Ecuador, 331
education, public, 77, 142
Egypt, 315
ancient, 90–91, 243, 319–20, 342
Napoleon’s expedition to, 236, 242–44, 267
Elephantine, island of, 243
Elnath, 117, 300
emigration, as capital offense, 122, 171
Encyclopédie, 33
English Channel, 97, 189, 195, 315
Enlightenment, 16, 132
reason in, 2
in Spain, 47, 48
Ennorde, 157
Enrile, Captain, 269–71, 275, 276, 277, 278
Entrecasteaux, Chevalier d’, 244
ephemerides, 184
Epinay-sur-Seine, 28, 29, 34
equality, 11, 13, 15, 29, 32, 142, 184
equator, 1, 95
equinoxes:
autumn, 151
procession of, 92
spring, 91
Eratosthenes, 90–91, 243
Essonne, 46, 360
Estagel, 183
Esteveny (Méchain’s assistant), 46, 121, 164, 175, 178
Euler, Leonard, 77
euro, 350
Euro Disney, 14, 71
Europe, triangulation of, 324, 334
European Common Market, 340
European Community, 349
Evaux, 197, 199–200, 209, 210, 211, 212, 250
executions, 105, 109, 113, 115, 117, 142, 151, 187, 217
of Lavoisier and other tax farmers, 145, 170
expedition of 1788, Franco-British, 43–45, 61–62, 305
Fabre, Gabriel, 212–13, 232
Fabre d’Eglantine, Philippe-Nazaire-François, 369
Fauchet, Ambassador, 239–40
Fermi, Enrico, 118
festival days, 140–41
feudal dues, 127, 259
Fiefs, 97
Figuères (Spain), 111, 113, 114, 116, 123
“figure of the earth,” 25, see also geodesy
Finance Committee, 100
Fisher, R. A., 301
Five of Hearts, 255
fleurs-de-lys, 27, 37, 144
“flight to Varennes,” of Louis XVI, 20
Foerster, Wilhelm, 337
Fontainbleau, 74
Fontana de Oro, 64, 107, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 184, 249, 267, 269, 271, 291, 295, 300, 355, 388
food, “just price” system for, 132–34
food crisis, 21, 75, 96, 100
Forceral, Mont, 112, 192
Ford, Gerald, 342
Foreign Ministry, French, 39–40, 237
400-degree scale, 53
Fourier, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, 321
franc, 135, 352
France:
border with Spain of, 47–48, 50, 65, 123
Cassini map of, 14, 19, 20, 57, 93, 147, 215
Catalonia and, 50, 57, 64–65, 108–9, 116, 121, 123
centralization of, 84
diversity of pre-metric measurements used in, 2, 4, 19, 32–33, 77
division between Paris and provinces of, 182, 195–96
effect of metric system on, 9
food crisis in, 21
introduction and rejection of metric system in, 4–5, 254–61, 258, 315–18
metric system, revived in, 327–30
new national map planned for, 100, 151–52
North African immigrants in, 349
régimes of, 101, 336
relations between Spain and, 47, 48–49, 51–52, 59, 64, 267
royal ancestral tomb of, 27, 30, 35, 36–37
rural transformation of, 24, 204–5, 330, 348–49
triangulation of, 290
war between Great Britain and, 75, 97–98, 105, 267, 269, 314–15
war between Spain and, 62–67, 105, 107–16, 121, 123, 191
see also Ancien Régime; French Republics
France profonde, la, 181
franciade, 151
Franklin, Benjamin, 78
Frederick the Great, 77
French army, 151, 165, 166, 172–73, 178, 191, 336
French Directory, 101
French Empires:
the First, 101, 151–52, 182, 242, 244, 326
the Second, 318–19, 326, 330–31
French language, 139–40, 195, 369
French navy, 42, 151, 162, 169
French Republics, 101, 177
declaration of, 13, 26, 140
Delambre and Méchain made official emmisaries of, 34
départements of, 182
enemies of, 105
informality in language in, 184
the Third, 336–37
transparency in, 302
tricolor flag of, 202
French Revolution, 40, 45, 195, 212, 223, 326, 327, 328
atheism of, 116, 121
causes of, 155
church lands sold in, 25, 155
citizenship and, 29
conditions after, 96; see also Terror
differing interpretations of, 68–70
freedom and trade and, 19, 130, 138
fugitives from, 228
Méchain’s reaction to, 110, 295
meridian expedition affected by, 3, 9, 21–22, 36–37
national self-image in, 84–85
promises of, 11, 13, 15, 29, 86
rethinking old assumptions in, 87
risk and, 146, 147
royal ancestral tomb descrated in, 27, 30, 35, 36–37
royal institutions attacked in, 99
Spanish reaction to, 47, 51–52, 64, 269
treason and counterrevolution against, 12, 29–30, 75, 191, 202
unive
rsal rights proclaimed in, 2–3, 90
Fresnel, Jean, 91
Galileo Galilei, 78, 87–88, 163, 213
Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 306–8, 314, 334, 389
Gaussian curves, 307
Geneva, 67
Genoa, 62, 67, 122, 160, 222
description and history of, 164–65, 165
French attack on, 177
independence and neutrality of, 161, 165
Méchain in, 164–77
Méchain correspondence between Paris and, 164, 166–76
geodesy, 43, 47, 229, 298, 304, see also earth
in ancient Egypt, 243, 319–20, 342
definition and description of, 13, 22–23, 25
Delambre’s forced explanations of, 28, 32–34
Delambre’s history of, 323
Eratosthenes, father of, 90–91
first international conference in, 333–35
golden age of, 92
military sponsor for, 151–52
geodetic latitude, 297–98
geography, museum of, 152
geoid, 25, 95
George III, King of England, 44, 78, 145
Germain, Sophie, 80
Germany (German states), 7, 64, 78, 152, 238, 241, 309, 336–37
metric reform in, 332–34
unification of, 333
Giza, Pyramid of, 243, 342
globalization, 138, 139, 228, 344
metric system and, 3, 4, 9
global positioning systems, 60
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 161
gold:
from the Americas, 47, 62
franc based on, 135
Gonzales, José, 48, 50, 56, 59, 60, 62, 64
grain, 21, 33, 127, 133
gram:
definition of, 86
previous name for, 86, 131
Grande Route, 46–47, 111, 116, 229
grave, 85, 131
gravity, verticality and, 297–98
Great Britain, 7, 21, 43, 53, 64, 78, 97, 147, 239, 297, 336
and development of metric system, 88–89, 94, 240–41
excluded from first International Commission, 237, 238
metric reform in, 240–41, 332–33, 339–40
war between France and, 75, 97–98, 105, 267, 269, 314–15
Great Pyramid, 242–43, 320, 342
Greece, ancient, 17
Greene, Bob, 344
Greenwich Observatory, 43, 62, 78, 97, 118, 241
Grégoire, Henri, 369
Gregorian calendar, 139, 140
Guadeloupe, 238
guilds, 129
Harrison, John, 78
Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph, 341
Haüy, René-Just, 86
Henry, Citoyenne, 309
Henry II, King of France, 27, 91
Henry IV, King of France, 27, 35, 36
Herment, 201–2
Herschel, Caroline, 79
Herschel, John F. W., 340
Hirsch, Adolph, 336
History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote, The (Cervantes), 39
History of Astronomy in the Eighteenth Century, The (Delambre), 322–23
History of Modern Astronomy (Delambre), 291
Holland, see Netherlands
House of Commons, British, 88, 89, 240, 332
House of Deputies, French, 328
House of Lords, British, 332
House of Peers, French, 328
House of Representatives, U.S., 89, 239
Huguenots, 154, 202
Humboldt, Alexander von, 217–19, 267, 312, 385
hyperinflation, 185, 191–92, 352
hypermarché, 349
Ibiza, 268, 270–74, 276
Index of prohibited books, 78
India, 339
Indian Ocean, 244
inflation, 154–56, 182, 183, 185, 191–92, 200, 223, 352
Information Age, 139, 142, 350
Interior, Ministry of, French, 235, 258, 261, 316, 318
International Brotherhood of Masons, 78
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875– ), 337–38
International Commission (1798–99), 3, 216, 226, 236–38, 244–52, 268, 306, 323, 326, 331, 341
criticisms of, 237, 247
Delambre’s presentation to, 3, 247–48
irregular curvature of the earth discovered by, 249–52, 253
latitude competition staged by, 245–45, 248
Méchain’s presentation to, 3, 248–49, 291, 294, 295, 301
official length of meter determined by, 236, 249, 252, 303
politics and, 236–38, 241–42
International Metric Convention (1875), 342
Internet, 350
Invalides, 12, 26, 70–71
Italy, Italian republics, 7, 46, 78, 152, 166, 172, 177, 237, 238, 242
Méchain in, 122, 161–63
proposal to link maps of France and, 172–73
unification of, 331
Jacobin party, 100, 105, 142, 151, 153, 166, 172, 187, 238, 239
Japan, 339
Jefferson, Thomas, 3, 88–89, 94, 238, 240, 327, 328, 342, 365
Jesuits, 16, 42, 77, 83, 302
Jews, equality for, 142
Josephus, 325
Journal de physique, 47
journée, 129, 130
justice, 132, 254
balance scale as symbol of, 2
“just price” economy, 132–34, 259
Karpeles Museum, 7, 294
Kepler, Johannes, 213
kilogram:
definitive weight of, 131
sample official weight for, 238, 253–54
Kochab, 117–18, 119, 189, 190, 300
Koeur-le-Petit, 112
Korea, 339
Kula, Witold, 129, 359
La Casueleta, 278
Ladies’ Astronomy (Lalande), 79
Lafayette, General, 30
La Gaste, 206
Lagny, 12, 14, 15–16, 27
Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, 100, 370
Lalande, Joseph-Jérôme, ix, 13, 26, 76–83, 94, 98, 100, 114, 147, 149–51, 162, 172, 176, 187–88, 200, 210, 217, 230, 233, 247, 286, 308–11, 314, 327, 390
in Academy of Sciences, 77, 80, 374
atheism of, 77, 149–50, 302, 309–10
character of, 18, 79–80, 82, 149, 308–11
classic astronomy text written by, see Astronomy
comet prediction of, 18, 77–78, 81
death of, 311
Delambre’s astronomy studies and work with, 9, 17–18, 76, 80, 81–83
as Director of Paris Observatory, 149
early career of, 77
fame as obsession of, 78–79
insects as favored food of, 18, 79, 309
Méchain’s astronomy studies and work with, 9, 18, 42–43, 76, 80, 81, 113
Méchain’s correspondence with, 169–71, 178, 193, 196
metric reform and, 76–77, 84, 94, 95, 140, 141
at Paris Observatory, 148
physical appearance of, 18, 79, 149, 310
portrait of, 80
reputation of, 18, 77, 381
star catalogue of, 81, 150–51, 309
as teacher, 79, 80, 149, 309
women and, 79–80, 149, 309
writings of, 78, 79
land, old units of measurement for, 129–32
Languedoc, 181, 211, 227
Laon, 42, 128
La Pérouse, Comte de, 244
Laplace, Charles-Emile, 328
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, x, 25, 82, 84, 90, 93, 94, 95, 100, 104, 143, 176, 198, 214, 222, 267, 300, 305, 306, 307, 381
International Commission and, 236–37, 247, 248, 250, 251
in Melun, 146, 216
metric reform and, 258, 261, 316
as Minister of the Interior, 261
at Paris Observatory, 148
as Senator for life, 316
Lapland, 93, 250
Latimer, Charles, 342
&nbs
p; Latin America, 331
latitude:
astronomic vs. geodetic, 297–98
atmospheric refraction’s effects on measurement of, 23, 118–19, 175, 184, 187, 188, 190, 246, 294
decimal-scale degrees of, 141–42
International Commission’s contest in measurement of, 245–46, 248, 294
measurements of, 22–23, 57, 59–62, 63, 97, 117–22, 120, 158, 172, 183–84, 187–90, 197, 211–12, 232, 248, 267, 293
Méchain’s error in measuring of, see Méchain’s error
pendulum periodicity and, 88–89, 92, 95
La Unión, General, 115–16, 122–23
Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, x, 48, 109, 110, 136, 150, 187, 381
Delambre and, 14, 98–99
dinner parties hosted by, 142–43
execution of, 145, 170
funds sent to Barcelona for Méchain by, 66–67
imprisonment of, 143, 144
metric reform and, 84, 85, 86, 135, 142–43
purging and arrest of, 104, 105
as tax farmer, 105, 135, 143, 145
as Treasurer of the Academy of Sciences, 67, 142
widow of, 200
League of Armed Neutrality, 238
least squares, method of, 305–8, 334
Leblond, Auguste-Savinier, 87
Le Chavelier, Jean-Baptiste, 268, 271
Lefèvre-Gineau, Louis (chemist), 86
Lefrançais, Marie-Jeanne-Amélie Harlay, 81, 98, 149, 150, 311
Lefrançais, Michel, 101
background of, 13, 81
as Delambre’s assistant, 13, 26, 34, 70, 96, 98
Lefrançais, Uranie, 98, 310
Legendre, Adrien-Marie, x, 249, 305–8, 389
in Academy of Sciences, 305
in Agency of Weights and Measures, 254, 305
method of least squares and, 305–8
metric commission and, 19, 20, 305
Temporary Agency of Weights and Measures led by, 152
Lenoir, Etienne, x, 13, 39, 46, 94, 152, 217, 237, 242
Borda repeating circles built by, 13, 53, 142, 172, 174, 178
meter sticks constructed by, 131, 253, 393
Lepaute, Madame, 79
Lewis and Clark expedition, 300
Liberia, 326
liberty, 11, 15, 29
Liberty bonnet, 103
Liberty trees, 52, 71, 154
Lieusaint, 349
Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, The (Sterne), 209
light, atmospheric refraction of, see atmospheric refraction
light speed, in current definition of meter, 7, 338
litre, previous name for, 131
Livorno, 161–62, 177
livre, 32–33, 135, 330
Llucía, Francesco-Xavier, 112, 115
Locke, John, 86, 240
Lodge of the Nine Sisters, 78
London, 89, 94, 118, 268, 332, 339
longitude:
determination of, 60, 78
see also meridian
Longitude, Board of, British, 147
Longitudes, Bureau of, French, 147–48, 191, 192, 233, 246, 272, 274, 275, 280, 285, 314, 335