FURTHER READING
For readers whose interest has been sufficiently aroused to read further, here are some suggestions. The first list consists of books on sexuality, behavior, primates, evolutionary reasoning, and related subjects. Many of them are written so as to be understandable to laypeople with no scientific training. They are available in large libraries, and many are still in print and available in bookstores. The second list consists of a dozen examples of technical articles, written for scientists and describing some of the specific studies that I discuss.
BOOKS
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Alcock, John. Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach. 5th ed. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1993.
Austin, C. R., and R. V. Short. Reproduction in Mammals. 2d ed., vols. 1–5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982–86.
Chagnon, Napoleon A., and William Irons, eds. Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press, 1979.
Cronin, Helena. The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Daly, Martin, and Margo Wilson. Sex, Evolution, and Behavior. 2d ed. Boston: Willard Grant Press, 1983.
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: Murray, 1871. Paperback reprint, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981.
Diamond, Jared. The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. New York: HarperCollins, 1992.
Fedigan, Linda Marie. Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Goodall, Jane. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986.
Halliday, Tim. Sexual Strategy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. The Woman That Never Evolved. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981.
Kano, T. Takayoshi. The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992.
Kevles, Bettyann. Females of the Species: Sex and Survival in the Animal Kingdom. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986.
Krebs, J. R., and N. B. Davies. Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. 3d ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1991.
Ricklefs, Robert E., and Caleb E. Finch. Aging: A Natural History. New York: Scientific American Library, 1995.
Rose, Michael R. Evolutionary Biology of Aging. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Small, Meredith F. Female Choices: Sexual Behavior of Female Primates. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993.
Smuts, Barbara B., Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
Symons, Donald. The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
Wilson, Edward O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975.
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES
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Alexander, Richard D. “How Did Humans Evolve?” Special publication no. 1. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Ann Arbor, 1990.
Emlen, Stephen T., Natalie J. Demong, and Douglas J. Emlen. “Experimental Induction of Infanticide in Female Wattled Jacanas.” Auk 106 (1989): 1–7.
Francis, Charles M., Edythe L. P. Anthony, Jennifer A. Brunton and Thomas H. Kunz. “Lactation in Male Fruit Bats.” Nature 367 (1994): 691–92.
Gjershaug, Jan Ove, Torbjörn Järvi, and Eivin Røskaft. “Marriage Entrapment by ‘Solitary’ Mothers: A Study on Male Deception by Female Pied Flycatchers.” American Naturalist 133 (1989): 273–76.
Greenblatt, Robert B. “Inappropriate Lactation in Men and Women.” Medical Aspects of Human Sexuality 6, no. 6 (1972): 25–33.
Hawkes, Kristen. “Why Do Men Hunt? Benefits for Risky Choices.” In Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies, edited by Elizabeth Cashdan (pp. 145–66). Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990.
Hawkes, Kristen, James F. O’Connell, and Nicholas G. Blurton Jones. “Hardworking Hadza Grandmothers.” In Comparative Socioecology: The Behavioral Ecology of Humans and Other Mammals, edited by V. Standen and R. A. Foley (pp. 341–66). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1989.
Hill, Kim, and A. Magdalena Hurtado. “The Evolution of Premature Reproductive Senescence and Menopause in Human Females: An Evaluation of the ‘Grandmother Hypothesis.’” Human Nature 2 (1991): 313–50.
Kodric-Brown, Astrid, and James H. Brown. “Truth in Advertising: The Kinds of Traits Favored by Sexual Selection.” American Naturalist 124 (1984): 309–23.
Oring, Lewis W., David B. Lank, and Stephen J. Maxson. “Population Studies of the Polyandrous Spotted Sandpiper.” Auk 100 (1983): 272–85.
Sillén-Tulberg, Birgitta, and Anders P. Møller. “The Relationship Between Concealed Ovulation and Mating Systems in Anthropoid Primates: A Phylogenetic Analysis.” American Naturalist 141 (1993): 1–25.
INDEX
Aché Indians, hunting by men of, 93–98
Adoptive mothers, lactation by, 51
Adultery laws, confidence in paternity and, 37–38. See also Extramarital sex
African elephants, menopause and, 125
African hunting dogs: infanticide and, 73
meat provisioning and, 92
Aging, 109–10
accidents and bad conditions and, 113–14
animal signals indicating, 130
human signals indicating, 135, 142
kingpin principle of, 114–16
repair and maintenance and, 109–13
repair and reproduction and, 112–13
signals indicating, 130, 135, 142
Albatrosses: “divorce” rates and, 135
eggs of, 108
parental care and, 17
Alexander, Richard, 71–73, 75
Alligators, parental care and, 23
American men, role of, 101–2
Amphibians: external fertilization and, 21
parental care and, 16
vivipary and, 22
Anatomical adaptations, natural selection and, 10–13
Andaman Islands, fat in women of, 138
Andelman, Sandy, 74–75
Androgens, 45
male pseudohermaphrodites and, 47
Animal signals, 128–34
age indicated by, 130
auditory, 129
behavioral, 129
in birds, 129, 130–31
electrical, 129
experimental study of, 130–31
Fisher’s runaway selection model of, 131–32
gender indicated by, 130
male sexual ornamentation and, 140
natural selection and, 128–29
olfactory, 129
sexual maturity indicated by, 130
truth in advertising theory of, 133–34
Antelope, mating systems of, 7
Anticontraceptive theory, of concealed ovulation, 70–71
Ants, signals and, 129
Apes: aging and, 113–14
humans compared to, 8–10
ovulatory signs and, 78
penis of, 144
promiscuous mating system of, 82, 83
sexual distinctiveness and, 47–48. See also Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gibbons; Gorillas; Orangutans
Archaeopteryx, 57
Arctic Indian men, hunting by, 95
Arctic seals, lactation and, 59
Asian elephants, menopause and, 125
Auditory signals, 129
Axillary hair, sexual maturity in humans indicated by, 135, 142
Baboons: ovulatory signals and, 64, 78, 82, 130
sex confined to estrus and, 64
Baleen whales, eggs of, 108
Bandicoots, pregnancy and, 58
Bar
bary macaques: public sex and, 3
sex confined to estrus and, 64–65
Bats, mating systems of, 7. See also Dyak fruit bats; Hammer-headed fruit bats
Battle of the sexes. See under Parental care
Behavioral signals, 3, 129
Better-genes-through-cuckoldry theory, of female sexual receptivity, 70
Big-bang reproduction (semelparity), 7, 106–7
Bipotential gonad, 44, 45
Birds: coparenting and, 29–34, 56
evolutionary commitment of, 55–58
internal fertilization and, 22, 55–56
mating systems of, 7
pair bonds formed by, 7–8
parental care and, 7, 16, 17, 55–58, 69
on Rennell Island, 122–23
sex for fertilization and, 66–67
sex-role-reversal polyandry and, 16, 26–29, 36, 57
signals and, 129, 130–31
Body fat. See Fat
Body signals. See Signals
Bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees): humans compared to, 8, 9
menopause and, 125
promiscuous mating system of, 8, 9, 69, 78–79
sex for fun and, 3
Bowerbirds, golden crest of, 132, 137
Breast-feeding. See under Lactation
Breasts: hormones and development of, 47–50
as signal in human females, 135, 136, 138–39, 141
Bride prices: confidence in paternity and, 37
women’s desirability and, 141
Brown, James, 133–34
Brush turkeys, parental care and, 17
Buttocks, as signal in human females, 138, 139
Century plants, big-bang reproduction and, 107
Chaperoning, confidence in paternity and, 38
Chickens, large eggs of, 27
Childbirth, risk of mother’s death and, 117–18
Child care. See under Parental care
Chimpanzees, 13
humans compared to, 8, 9
infanticide and, 73
lack of paternal care and, 2–3
menopause and, 125
ovulatory signals and, 78, 80, 81, 82
penis of, 144
private sex (consortship) and, 3
promiscuous mating system of, 9, 69, 78–79, 82, 83
public sex and, 3
pygmy, see Bonobos
Chromosomes, 43–44
Circumcision, female. See Clitoridectomy
Clitoridectomy, confidence in paternity and, 38
Clitoris, 45
Comparative method, concealed ovulation studied by, 77–88
Concealed ovulation, 5, 64, 67, 68–88
anticontraceptive theory of, 70–71
comparative method studying, 77–88
daddy-at-home theory of, 71–73, 75–76, 79, 84, 86–87
detecting ovulation and, 63–64
evolution of, 80–88
female receptivity and, 64–65
harems and, 84, 85
hormonal test kit and, 63–64
many-fathers theory of, 71, 73–75, 76, 79, 84
mating systems and, 79–80
paternity confused by, 71, 73–75
prostitution theory of, 70
theories explaining, 70–88
Confessions of Felix Krull, Confidence Man (Mann), 88
Confidence of parenthood: concealed ovulation and, 74–75
daddy-at-home theory of concealed ovulation and, 71–73, 75–76
genetic testing and, 60–61, 76
male lactation and, 43, 60–61
many-fathers theory of concealed ovulation and, 71, 73–75, 76
parental care and, 20, 24–25, 30, 37–38, 56
Conflict of interests: between closely related people, 100–101
in hunter-gatherer societies, 100
Consortship, chimpanzees and, 3
Coparenting: birds and, 29–34, 56
daddy-at-home theory and, 72
humans and, 29–30, 38
male lactation and, 53–54
sexual receptivity and, 68–70
Couples, humans forming, 4, 5–6
Cows, hormones and lactation and, 48
virgin cows and, 49
Daddy-at-home theory, of concealed ovulation, 71–73, 75–76, 79, 84, 86–87
Darwin, Charles, 10
Deer, antlers of, 133–34
Dihydrotestosterone, 45
male pseudohermaphrodites and, 47
Dinosaurs, 57
Divorce, 102
human signals and, 135
Dogs: mammary glands and, 48
sex for fertilization and, 66
signals and, 129. See also African hunting dogs
Dolphins, sex for fun and, 3
Dyak fruit bats, spontaneous male lactation and, 52, 54, 60
Echidnas, internal fertilization and, 22
Eggs: larger than sperm, 21
menopause and depletion of, 107–9, 115
Electrical signals, 129
Electric fishes, signals and, 129
Elephants: eggs of, 108
menopause and, 125
pregnancy and, 58
Enzymes, male/female organ development and, 46
Epididymis, 45
Estrogen, lactation and, 49–50
Estrus, mammals confining sex to, 64–65. See also Fertilization, mammals having sex for
Evolution: of concealed ovulation, 80–88
human sexuality and, 10–13. See also Natural selection
Evolutionary commitment, 54–55
birds’ reproductive strategy and, 55–58
mammalian reproductive strategy and, 58–60, 62
External fertilization, 21
alternative opportunities foreclosed by child care and, 23
in fish, 13
humans and, 61
obligate parental investment and, 21
parental care and, 25–26
Extramarital sex, 5
biological significance of, 98–99
confidence of parenthood and, 76
hunting and, 98–100
recreational sex and, 69–70
as risky, 68
sex appeal and, 141
sex differences in attitudes toward, 38–39
Extra-pair copulations, of Pied Flycatchers, 33–34
Facial beauty, as human signal, 137–38
Fallopian tubes, 45
Fat, as signal in human females, 135, 138–39, 141
Female menopause. See Menopause
Females (human): breasts and, 135, 136, 138–39, 141
buttocks and, 138, 139
extramarital sex and, 38–39
facial beauty and, 137–38, 141
fat and, 135, 138–39, 141
fertility decline in, 103, see also Menopause
hormones and breast development and, 49–50
lactation by, 23, 24, 35–36, 49–50
parental care and, 4, 21–24, 25, 29–30, 35–38, 102
plant foods gathered by, 91, 93–94, 95, 100
sexual maturity of, 142
sexual ornamentation and, 138–41. See also Concealed ovulation; Lactation; Menopause; Sexual receptivity (female)
Females (mammalian): duration of fertility of, 105–6, 115
lactation and, 23, 24, 49, 50
menopause and, 105–7, 124–25
parental care and, 7, 15–16, 21–34, 55–57
sex-role-reversal polyandry and, 26–29
signals and, 130, 131–34
Fertilization, mammals having sex for, 3, 64–65, 66–67. See also External fertilization; Internal fertilization
Fish: external fertilization and, 13, 21
male role and, 7
mating systems of, 7
parental care and, 7, 16, 25–26
vivipary and, 22
Fisher, Ronald, Sir, 131–32, 144
Fisher’s runaway selection model of signals, 131–32, 144
Flycatchers. See Pi
ed Flycatchers
Ford, Henry, 114–15
Foreclosed opportunity, parental care and, 20, 23–24, 35–37, 38, 56
Frogs: mating systems of, 7
parental care and, 7, 25–26
Fun, sex for. See Recreational sex
Genes, 43, 47
males passing to offspring, 24. See also Chromosomes; Natural selection
Genetic testing, confidence of parenthood and, 60–61
Gibbons: couples and, 4
as monogamous, 78, 82
parental care and, 3, 54, 69
paternal care and, 3
sex confined to estrus and, 65
sexual distinctiveness and, 48
Glans penis, 45
Glass frogs, parental care and, 26
Goats (female), lactation in virgin: hormones and, 49
“milking” and, 50
Goats (male), lactation and: hormones and, 49
spontaneous lactation and, 42, 51–52
Gorillas: harems and, 5, 78, 82
head shape indicating sex and, 130
humans compared to, 9
infanticide and, 73, 74
ovulatory signals and, 78, 80, 81
paternal care and, 3
penis of, 143, 144
sex and parental care and, 69
sexual distinctiveness and, 48
sexuality of, 9
sexual maturity indicated and, 130
Grandmothers, extended role of, 119–20
Great apes. See Apes
Great Tits, breast stripe as signal and, 130–31
Growth hormone. See Somatotropin
Guinea pigs, lactation and, 59
hormones and male lactation and, 49
Hadza, foraging by women of different ages and, 119–20
Hammer-headed fruit bats, lek mating system of, 7, 8
Hamsters, duration of fertility of, 115
Handicap principle. See Zahavi’s handicap principle of signals
Harems: concealed ovulation and, 84, 85
humans and, 4, 5–6, 37
mammals and, 5
primates and, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83
Hawkes, Kristen, 93–98, 119–20
Hazda Indians, hunting by men of, 93, 95–96
Head shape, gender indicated by, 130
Herring Gulls, signals and, 130
Hill, Kim, 93
Hoofed mammals, lack of paternal care and, 2
Hormones: lactation and, 48–50
male lactation and, 47–50
sex differences and, 47–49
Howler monkeys, concealed ovulation and, 82
Hrdy, Sarah, 71, 73–75