31. Associated Press, “Standing Rock Activist Accused of Firing at Police Gets Nearly Five Years in Prison” (Guardian, July 12, 2018).
APPENDIX 1
1. Thomas A. Gregor and Donald Tuzin (eds.), Gender in Amazonia and Melanesia: An Exploration of the Comparative Method (University of California Press, 2001), 1.
2. Key papers that constitute the Paleoamerican hypothesis are (in order of publication):
C. L. Brace et al., “Old World Sources of the First New World Human Inhabitants: A Comparative Craniofacial View,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 17 (2001), 10017–10022; W. A. Neves and M. Hubbe, “Cranial Morphology of Early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the Settlement of the New World.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, no. 51 (2005), 18309–18314; R. González‐José et al., “The Peopling of America: Craniofacial Shape Variation on a Continental Scale and Its Interpretation from an Interdisciplinary View,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology: The Official Publication of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists 137, no. 2 (2008), 175–187; M. Hubbe, W. A. Neves, and K. Harvati, “Testing Evolutionary and Dispersion Scenarios for the Settlement of the New World,” PLoS One 5, no. 6 (2010), e11105; D. L. Jenkins et al., “Clovis-Age Western Stemmed Projectile Points and Human Coprolites at the Paisley Caves,” Science 337, no. 6091 (2012), 223–228; K. E. Graf, C. V. Ketron, and M. R. Waters (eds.), Paleoamerican Odyssey (Texas A&M University Press, 2014), 397–412; J. C. Chatters et al., “Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans,” Science 344, no. 6185 (2014), 750–754.
3. Maanasa Raghavan et al., “Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent Population History of Native Americans,” Science 349.6250 (2015), aab3884.
4. Ibid.
5. S. Ivan Perez et al., “Discrepancy Between Canial and DNA Data of Early Americans: Implications for American Peopling,” PLoS One (May 29, 2009), 1, http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0005746.
6. Germán Manríquez et al., “Morphometric and mtDNA Analyses of Archaic Skeletal Remains from Southwestern South America,” Chungara: Revista de Antropología Chilena 43, no. 2 (2011), 283.
7. Pontus Skoglund et al., “Genetic Evidence for Two Founding Populations of the Americas,” Nature 525, no. 3 (September 2015), 107.
8. Ibid.
9. See, for example, Neves and Hubbe, “Cranial Morphology of Early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil.” Though not substantially in dispute, there are dissenting opinions. For a recent example, see Raghavan et al., “Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent Population History of Native Americans,” aab3884–7.
10. See Neves and Hubbe, “Cranial Morphology of Early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil,” 18309.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., 18313–18314.
14. Ibid., 18309.
15. Skoglund et al., “Genetic Evidence for Two Founding Populations of the Americas.”
16. Raghavan et al., “Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent Population History of Native Americans.”
17. In an online discussion with Lev Michael, assistant professor in the Linguistics department at the University of California, Berkeley, and an expert on Amazonian languages who cites this comment by Dziebel in his “Evaluating the Linguistic Evidence for an Out of America Hypothesis,” online here: https://anthroling.wordpress.com/2008/06/11/evaluating-the-linguistic-evidence-for-an-out-of-america-hypothesis/.
18. Austin Whittall, “Language Diversity and the Peopling of America,” October 18, 2015, http://patagoniamonsters.blogspot.co.uk/2015/10/language-diversity-and-peopling-of.html.
19. Ibid.
20. See “Papua New Guinea:” https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country.
21. Whittall, “Language Diversity and the Peopling of America.”
22. Which he sources from Joanna Nichols, “Mobility and Ancient Society in Asia and the Americas,” pp. 117–126, chapter titled “How America Was Colonised: Linguistic Evidence,” https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-15138-0_9.
23. Whittall, “Language Diversity and the Peopling of America.”
24. Table from “Indigenous Languages of South America,” http://aboutworldlanguages.com/indigenous-languages-of-south-america.
25. See A. I. Aikhenvald and A. Y. Aikhenvald, Languages of the Amazon (Oxford University Press, 2012), 1: “Lowland Amazonia boasts over 350 languages grouped into some fifteen language families, plus a fair number of isolates.”
26. Ibid. “The linguistic diversity of the Amazon is remarkable in every respect. Its only rival is that of the New Guinea area.”
27. Gregor and Tuzin, Gender in Amazonia and Melanesia, 1.
28. Ibid.
29. “Amazonia and Melanesia: Gender and Anthropological Comparison,” details here: http://www.wennergren.org/history/amazonia-and-melanesia-gender-and-anthropological-comparison.
30. Gregor and Tuzin, Gender in Amazonia and Melanesia, 52–53.
31. Ibid., 302.
32. Ibid., 304.
33. Ibid., 147–149.
34. Ibid., 310.
35. Ibid., 38.
36. Ibid., 1, 309, 320–321.
37. Ibid., 315.
38. Ibid., 318.
39. Ibid., 310.
40. Ibid., 13–14: “Typically men’s organisations are associated with meeting grounds, or men’s houses, where men conduct secret initiations and feasts. The cults address similar spirit entities, conceal similar secret paraphernalia and sound-producing instruments and punish female intruders with gang rape or death. Taken together the pattern of spatial separation, initiations and punishment of female intruders constitutes a ‘complex,’ or adherence of traits, that is found widely throughout Melanesia, and in at least four major and distantly separated culture regions in lowland South America.”
41. Ibid., 14.
42. Ibid., 330.
43. Ibid., 331–332.
44. Ibid., 1.
APPENDIX 2
1. Robert H. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea 11 (Pineapple Press, Florida, 1995), in particular pp. 185–120. Fuson makes the case also that the island named Antilia, placed to the south of “Satanaze” on the Pizzagano Chart, is Taiwan. I review the whole matter in detail in Underworld: The Mysterious Origins of Civilization (2002), 626–639.
2. Graham Hancock, Underworld, 631.
3. Ibid., 22–23. All calculations of ancient sea levels in Underworld were the work of Dr. Glenn Milne, then of Durham University, a world expert in the subject.
4. Ibid., 500–502.
5. Graham Hancock, Fingerprints of the Gods, (Crown, 1995), 4–9.
6. Ibid., 3–25.
7. Ibid., 3–13.
APPENDIX 3
1. P. A. Colinvaux et al., “Amazonian and Neotropical Plant Communities on Glacial Time-Scales: The Failure of the Aridity and Refuge Hypotheses,” Quaternary Science Reviews 19 (January 2000), 141.
2. Katherine J. Willis and Robert J. Whittaker, “The Refugial Debate,” Science (February 25, 2000), 1406–1407.
3. P. A. Colinvaux and P. E. de Oliveira, “Amazon Plant Diversity and Climate Through the Cenozoic,” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 166 (February 2001), 57, 60.
4. Thomas P. Kastner and Miguel A. Goni, “Constancy in the Vegetation of the Amazon Basin During the Late Pleistocene: Evidence from the Organic Matter Composition of Amazon Deep Sea Fan Sediments,” Geology (April 2003), 291.
5. M. B. Bush et al., “Amazonian Paleoecological Histories: One Hill, Three Watersheds,” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 214 (November 25, 2004), 359.
6. Carlos D’Apolito et al., “The Hill of Six Lakes Revisited: New Data and Re-Evaluation of a Key Pleistocene Amazon Site,” Quaternary Science Reviews 76 (September 2013), 153–154.
7. Ibid.
8. John Francis Carson et al., “Environmental Impac
t of Geometric Earthwork Construction in Pre-Columbian Amazonia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 22 (July 2014), 10497.
9. D. Fontes, R. C. Cordeiro, et al., “Paleoenvironmental Dynamics in South Amazonia, Brazil, During the Last 35,000 Years Inferred from Pollen and Geochemical Records of Lago do Saci,” Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (October 1, 2017), 177.
10. M. Goulding, R. B. Barthem, and R. Duenas, The Smithsonian Atlas of the Amazon (Smithsonian Books, 2003), 19. “Approximately 85 per cent of the South American rainforest … is found in the Amazon Basin.”
11. All figures are taken from the World Bank, “Land Area (sq. km.),” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ag.lnd.totl.k2?name_desc=false, apart from Europe, taken from S. Adams, A. Ganeri, and A. Kay, Geography of the World: The Essential Family Guide to Geography and Culture (DK, 2006), 78.
12. Email from Graham Hancock to Professor Renato Cordeiro dated March 12, 2018.
13. Professor Cordeiro’s kind reply (email of March 14, 2018) contained some technical terms that I feel I need to translate here before getting to the meat of what he said:
Quaternary—the reference is to our current era, roughly from 2.5 million years ago until the present.
Edaphic characteristics—the reference is to the role of factors such as water content, acidity, aeration, and the availability of nutrients, that is, factors inherent in the soil itself rather than consequent upon climate.
Campinaranas—these are neotropical ecoregions in the Brazilian Amazon.
Caatingas—another kind of ecoregion of the Brazilian Amazon, in this case characterized by desert vegetation.
Pollinic—the reference is to all matters relating to, containing, or derived from pollen.
“In order to understand the vegetation fluctuations during the quaternary,” Professor Cordeiro told me, “one must try to understand some of the current distribution of vegetation. Basically in the Amazon we have evergreen forests, deciduous forests, tree savanna, shrub savanna, open savanna and fields. In some regions vegetation is influenced by edaphic characteristics such as the campinaranas and caatingas of the Rio Negro where vast areas covered by quartz sands, with low nutrients and low water retention, limit the occurrence of vegetation with large biomass. Along the rivers are the gallery forests which, probably have been relatively well preserved during drier climatic periods. Varzea forests (floodplain forest) are still distributed along flood areas and inundated forests (regionally called igapó) that occur inside the river bed until 6 meters depth. This vegetation type mosaic produces variable amounts of pollens and therefore different responses in the sedimentary records as a function of the depositional environment (lakes near the Rios channel, e.g., Lago Saci, Lago La Gaiba; lakes far from the dynamics of rivers e.g. Carajás Lakes, Lagoa da Pata; marine deposits). As an example of this complexity of interpretations it is possible to mention that marine records have a pollinic signal very influenced by galleries forests and floodplain forests that would have been preserved during drier climatic periods. The Saci lake, because it is relatively close to the São Benedito II River, probably had a vegetation with higher biomass in relation to sites outside of the river influence. Therefore, due to this complexity between the generation of the different types of pollens of different vegetation types in relation to the depositional environment, many interpretations do not accurately depict the regional vegetation physiognomy.”
14. For example, see M. B. Bush et al., “Paleotemperature Estimates for the Lowland Americas between 30 Degrees South and 30 Degrees North at the Last Glacial Maximum,” chapter 17 in Interhemispheric Climate Linkages, ed. Vera Markgraf (Academic Press, 2001), 303. See also Bush et al., “Amazonian Paleoecological Histories,” 360.
INDEX
Ab
Above World
Acre
Acuña, Cristóbal de
Adena
ADEs. See Amazonian Dark Earths
Adovasio, James M.
Agassiz, Lake
agriculture
Aju-Tasch (Bear Rock)
Aleutian Islanders
Algonquian
Allen, Thurman
Alpha Cygni
Altai,. See also Denisova Cave
Amazonia
agriculture in
Australasia and
forests of
in Ice Age
lost civilizations and
Melanesia and
Men’s cults of
Native Americans in
Nazca Lines and
Papua New Guinea and
plant medicines in
shamans of
smallpox in
terra preta in
Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise (Meggers)
Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs)
Amazonian geoglyphs
ayahuasca and
Nazca Lines and
Stonehenge and
American Holocaust (Stannard)
Amit
Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (Squier and Davis, E.)
Ancient Works
Anderson, David
Anderson, Raymond
Andros
Angkor Wat
Anker, Arthur
Antarctica
Anthony, John
antler tools
Anzick-1
The Archeological Atlas of Ohio (Mills)
Arhuaco
Aroana
Asatryan, Papin
astronomers
astronomy,. See also specific topics
Athabascans
Atlantis
Australasia
Amazonia and
linguistic diversity in
Native Americans and
autumn equinox
at Angkor Wat
at Great Sphinx of Giza
at Watson Brake
Avebury
Aveni, Anthony F.
ayahuasca
death and
geometry and
Milky Way and
as Telepathine,
azimuth
at Monks Mound
at Poverty Point
at Saginaw Bay impact
at Serpent Mound
of summer solstice
at Watson Brake
at Woodhenge
Azoury, Ricardo
Aztec library, burning of
Ba,
Baalbek
Badawy, Alexander
Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de
Balée, William
Ballcourt Mound, at Poverty Point
Banana Bayou Mounds
Barasana
Bardo (the Between)
Bauval, Robert
Bear Rock (Aju-Tasch)
Belaude, Luisa
Below World
bend-break technique
Bering land bridge
Beringian standstill model, for Siberia
the Between (Bardo)
Bimini
biomass burning, in YD
Bird Mound, at Poverty Point, 267, p3
Birdman
Black Earth (terra preta)
Blackwater Draw
Bluefish Caves
Bølling-Allerød interstadial
Bonaldo, Alexandre B.
bone tools
Bonnemère, Pascale
Bonnichsen, Robson
Book of Gates,
Book of the Breaths of Life,
Book of What Is in the Duat,
Book of What Is in the Netherworld,
bracelet
brain-smasher
Brecher, Kenneth
Brown, James
Brown, Joseph Epes
Budge, E. A. Wallis
Builder Gods
burins
Burks, Jarrod
Bush, M. B.
C-14. See carbon-dating
Cabral, Mariana Petry
Caddo
Cahokia. See Monks Mound
Calado, Manoel
Califor
nia wildfires
Callahan, Richard
Cameron, Terry
Caney Mounds
equinox at
Watson Brake and
capsicum (chili peppers)
carbon-dating (C-14, radiocarbon dating)
in Amazonia
at Anzick-1
at Caney Mounds
at Conly
at Fazenda Colorada
at Frenchman’s Bend
in Mal’ta
at Monte Verde
at Painel do Pilão
of Poverty Point
at Rego Grande
of Severino Calazans and
at Watson Brake
for YD
Carlson, Randall
Carolina Bays
Carvajal, Gaspar de
Cashinahua
cassava (manioc)
Caverna da Pedra Pintada
Cerutti, Richard
Champollion, Jean-François
Channeled Scablands
charcoal
in ADEs
from Monte Sano
Murray Springs in
at Rego Grande
at Serpent Mound
from YD
Charles, Charles
Cherokee
chert
Chickasaw
chili peppers (capsicum)
Christianity
Cinq-Mars, Jacques
Circle of Osiris
circle-octagon
cities
in Amazonia
of gods
City of the Sun (Heliopolis),
Clark, John
Clement, Charles R.
climate change,. See also Younger Dryas
Clovis
Anzick-1 and
Bluefish Caves and
extinction of
land bridge and
lost civilizations and
Monte Verde and
at Murray Springs
Siberia and
South America and
stone tools of
Topper and
YDB and
Clube, Victor
cocoa trees
Coffin Texts
Coles Creek culture
Colinvaux, P. A.
Collins, Andrew
comet impact. See also