212 the number of pages of JAMA: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 85–86.
213 “He who orders”: Kefauver, In the Hands of a Few, 8.
213 “safe and efficacious in use”: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 122.
213 The company hawked the drug: Knightley et al., Suffer the Children, 26.
213 She was concerned about reports: Ibid., 73–81.
214 Merrell’s medical director: Ibid., 73–81.
215 The story was reported on the front page: Mintz, “‘Heroine’ of FDA Keeps Bad Drug off Market,” A1.
215 “thalidomide was already barred”: Lasagna, “Congress, the FDA, and New Drug Development,” 328.
215 For the first time: Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 121–24.
215 The answer was that “substantial evidence”: Ibid., 127.
215 “even though there may be preponderant evidence”: Lasagna, “Congress, the FDA, and New Drug Development.” See also Temin, Taking Your Medicine, 124.
216 Louis Lasagna cited a momentous event: Lasagna, “The Controlled Clinical Trial,” 367.
216 “Their cases were as similar”: Lind, A Treatise of the Scurvy, 192–93. Key passages from this 1753 work can be found at the James Lind Library, http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lind_kp.html.
216 Franklin and Mesmer had different ideas: Kaptchuk, “Intentional Ignorance,” 394.
217 “at hazard, and in parts very distant”: Ibid., 396.
219 an RCT is much more suited: See Healy, Mania, 128–34.
219 “taken the blindfold test”: “Morgan’s Old Gold,” Time, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,786005,00.html.
219 A decade later: Gold, Kwit, and Otto, “The Xanthines (Theobromine and Aminophylline) in the Treatment of Cardiac Pain.”
220 He cited the Old Gold campaign: Shapiro and Shapiro, The Powerful Placebo, 154.
220 Fisher was trying to sort out fact from opinion: Marks, Progress of Experiment, 141–48.
221 to equalize the chance: Ibid., 144.
222 “free a researcher”: Ibid., 146.
222 I have an intense prejudice: “Conference on Therapy,” American Journal of Medicine, 727.
223 Let the experimenter who is driven: Marks, Progress of Experiment, 139–40.
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227 “a psychological response to an identifiable stressor”: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., 679–80.
227 “excessive anxiety and worry”: Ibid., 476.
228 Erving Goffman and Michel Foucault: See Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity, and Foucault, Madness and Civilization.
229 socially constructed: See Berger and Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality, also Gergen, “The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology.”
232 “fevered polemical discussions”: Spitzer and Wilson, “Nosology and the Official Psychiatric Nomenclature,” 837.
233 “what [was] behind the symptom”: Menninger, The Vital Balance, 325.
233 “We must attempt to explain”: Ibid.
233 “the force of factors”: Menninger, “Psychiatric Experience in the War,” 580.
233 This synthesis was enshrined: Grob, “Origins of DSM-I.”
234 “Instead of putting so much emphasis”: Menninger, The Vital Balance, 325.
234 The Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry: Shorter, History of Psychiatry, 173–77.
234 “an objective critical attitude”: Wilson, “DSM-III and the Transformation of American Psychiatry,” 401.
234 psychologist Philip Ash showed: Ash, “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis.”
234 a dismal 42 percent of cases: Beck, “Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnoses”: 213.
235 a team led by Martin Katz: Katz, Cole, and Lowery, “Studies of the Diagnostic Process.”
235 manic depression was much more common: See, for example, Sandifer et al., “Psychiatric Diagnosis.”
236 “There is a terrible sense of shame”: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 405.
236 they disrupted APA meetings: Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry, 102–3.
236 the protestors got what they wanted: Ibid., 112–50.
236 “Referenda on matters of science”: Ibid., 153.
236 “If groups of people march”: Ibid., 141.
237 Laing focused on schizophrenia: Laing, The Divided Self.
237 “problems of living”: Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness.
238 “documenting the total number of people”: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 403.
238 “carrying psychiatrists on a mission”: Ibid.
239 “Some individuals may interpret”: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 2nd ed., 122.
239 some argued, and continue to argue: See, for example, Klerman et al., “A Debate on DSM-III.” More recently, see Kirk and Kutchins, The Selling of DSM, and Caplan, They Say You’re Crazy.
239 “I was uncomfortable with not knowing”: Spiegel, “The Dictionary of Disorder,” http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/01/03/050103fa_fact.
240 depressive neurosis: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 2nd ed., 40.
241 overall attempt “to avoid terms”: Ibid., viii.
241 its professional discussions relegated: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 403.
242 “assumed . . . an underlying process”: Bayer and Spitzer, “Neurosis, Psychodynamics and DSM-III,” 189.
242 neurosis had been first described: Knoff, “A History of the Concept of Neurosis.”
242 “DSM-III gets rid of the castles of neurosis”: Bayer and Spitzer, “Neurosis, Psychodynamics and DSM-III,” 189.
242 “many patients”: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 405.
242 “a straitjacket”: Bayer and Spitzer, “Neurosis, Psychodynamics and DSM-III,” 190.
243 “wish [neurosis] reinserted”: Ibid., 192.
243 “scientists attempting to advance”: Ibid., 190.
243 “pro-neurosis forces”: Ibid., 193.
243 a large role in “Project Flower”: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 407.
243 “extremely embarrassing”: Bayer and Spitzer, “Neurosis, Psychodynamics and DSM-III,” 193–94.
244 The DSM criteria for MDD: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 3rd ed., 213–15.
244 dysthymic disorder: Ibid., 220–22.
244 adjustment disorder: Ibid., 300.
244 “Clerks rather than experts”: Wilson, “DSM-III,” 406.
244 the Feighner criteria: Feighner et al., “Diagnostic Criteria for Use in Psychiatric Research.”
245 the single most commonly cited article: Spitzer, Endicott, and Robins, “The Development of Diagnostic Criteria in Psychiatry,” 21.
245 “criteria for establishing diagnostic validity”: Ibid.
245 Allan Horwitz and Jerome Wakefield examined: Horwitz and Wakefield, Loss of Sadness, 93–94.
246 many people who had recently been bereaved: Clayton, Halikas, and Maurice, “The Bereavement of the Widowed.”
246 the DSM-III committee were reminded: Horwitz and Wakefield, Loss of Sadness, 100–102.
246 “A full depressive syndrome”: American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 3rd ed., 333.
247 grief begins to wane: Clayton and Darvish, “Course of Depressive Symptoms Following the Stress of Bereavement.”
248 the profession would have been back to the bad old days: As indeed, they turned out to be in Marwit, “Reliability of Diagnosing Complicated Grief.”
251 “depression in the Western world”: Andrews and Skoog, “Lifetime Prevalence of Depression,” 495.
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255 “not typically used for your condition”: Tilburt et al., �
��Prescribing ‘Placebo Treatments,’” http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/337/oct23_2/a1938.
256 “As a result of accumulated knowledge”: Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, 187.
257 secondary anxiety: Becker, “History, Culture, and Subjective Experience.”
257 Zinberg wrote about subcultures: Zinberg et al., “Patterns of Heroin Use”; Zinberg, Harding, and Winkeller, “A Study of Social Regulatory Mechanisms”; and Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, 135–71.
258 Harvard’s lawyers objected: Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, 199–200.
259 An ad that ran in a 1945 issue of the American Journal of Psychiatry: “If the individual is depressed . . . ,” xiii.
260 an indication that was worth $1.5 billion: “Pharmacy Facts and Figures,” Drug Topics website, http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/article/articleList.jsp?categoryId=7604.
260 “outstanding effectiveness . . . with which Miltown relieves”: “Relieves Anxiety and Anxious Depression,” Miltown advertisement, 20.
260 people were “miltowning”: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 106. See also Shorter, Before Prozac, 45.
260 “No Miltown today”: Shorter, Before Prozac, 45.
260 The industry pushed the minor tranquilizers: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 110.
260 “when the patient rambles”: “When the patient rambles . . . ,” advertisement, 420.
260 Valium eventually took up more: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 110.
261 The minor tranquilizers’ success: Wheatley, “A Comparative Trial of Imipramine”; Hollister, “Mental Disorders”; Blackwell, “Psychotropic Drugs in Use Today.”
261 the first “product of the pharmaceutical industry”: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 109.
262 14 million prescriptions: Ibid., 112.
262 “penicillin for the blues”: Ibid., 106.
262 “It’s hard to appreciate the difficulty”: Martin, “Pharmaceutical Virtue,” 161.
262 “chemical revolution in psychiatry”: Ayd, Recognizing the Depressed Patient, iii.
262 “depressions are among the most common illnesses”: Ibid., 5.
263 “Not all depressed people require the services”: Ibid., 117.
263 “Many melancholics can be cared for”: Ibid., 119.
263 “treatment can be just as effective”: Ibid., 119–20.
263 “to explain to the patient”: Ibid., 117.
263 “Depressed people are very suggestible”: Ibid., 119.
264 “I found a musicologist”: Martin, “Pharmaceutical Virtue,” 161.
264 We gave this to doctors: Ibid.
265 one sales rep for every eight doctors: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 110.
266 the dangers of “mood drugs”: Shorter, Before Prozac, 117.
266 “other products which also affect the mind”: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 112.
266 one of “the most frequently abused drugs”: Shorter, Before Prozac, 118.
266 “these drugs have produced”: Ibid., 117.
266 “the greatest commercial success”: Shorter, Before Prozac, 99.
267 their sales continued to languish: Callahan and Berrios, Reinventing Depression, 111–12.
268 a team at Eli Lilly: Wong et al., “A Selective Inhibitor of Serotonin Uptake.”
268 this wasn’t in the company’s game plan: This story can also be found in Shorter, Before Prozac, 177, and Healy, Antidepressant Era, 167–68.
268 zimelidine syndrome: Shorter, Before Prozac, 174.
269 the company was finally interested: Bremner, “Fluoxetine in Depressed Patients”; see also Wong, Bymaster, and Engleman, “Prozac (Fluoxetine, Lilly 110140) the First Selective Serotonin Uptake Inhibitor.”
270 they suddenly can’t reach orgasm: Nurnberg et al., “Sildenafil Treatment of Women,” 395.
270 nearly 70 percent: Lin et al., “The Role of the Primary Care Physician in Patients’ Adherence to Antidepressant Therapy,” 70; see also Nurnberg et al., “Sildenafil Treatment of Women.”
270 “similar findings”: Leber, “Approvable action.”
270 antidepressants had become: Spielmans et al., “The Accuracy of Psychiatric Medication Advertisements in Medical Journals,” 268.
271 “Unfortunately, our internal policies”: Ibid., 271.
271 80 percent of “high prescribers”: Neslin, “Executive Summary: ROI Analysis of Pharmaceutical Promotion,” www.rxpromoroi.org/rapp/exec_sum.html. See also Hunt, “Interaction of Detailing and Journal Advertising,” www.rxpromoroi.org/pdf/interaction_whitepaper.pdf.
271 after reading in the Journal of the American Medical Association: See, for instance, Hirschfeld et al., “The National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association Consensus Statement on the Undertreatment of Depression,” and Kessler, “The Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder.”
272 four times more likely: Olfson and Marcus, “National Patterns in Antidepressant Medication Treatment.”
272 the drug’s $1.5 billion in sales: “Prozac Making Lilly a Little Edgy,” BusinessWeek, June 22, 1992.
273 “the king of antidepressants”: Langreth, “Mending the Mind,” B1.
273 its sales were still up by 18 percent: Ibid.
273 still only 10 percent: Hirschfeld et al., “National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association Consensus Statement.”
273 “patients [become] informed consumers”: Ibid., 338.
273 Eli Lilly hired the Leo Burnett Company: Elliott, “A New Campaign by Leo Burnett Will Try to Promote Prozac Directly to Consumers.”
274 “one of the most serious assignments”: Ibid.
274 depression “isn’t just feeling down”: Stanfel, “Prozac Print Campaign,” 507.
274 “assisting people”: Ibid., 506.
274 The first ad: You can find this ad in, among other outlets, the May 1998 issue of Reader’s Digest, 182–84.
274 Lilly and Burnett took Prozac: Hume, “Prozac Getting a New Prescription.”
275 Have you stopped doing the things you enjoy: I am grateful to Joseph Dumit, who provided me with DVD copies of the television ads discussed here.