Both Didymus and Thomas mean “twin” Jude was his name. He is talked about as the twin of Jesus in the ancient Syrian book the Acts of Thomas, which describes his missionary journey to India after Jesus’s death.
For an English translation, see Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, pp. 487–97. I have taken my quotations from there.
For an English translation, see Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, pp. 235–45. I have taken my quotations from there.
For an English translation, see Wilhelm Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, trans. R. McL. Wilson, 2 vols. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1991–92), 1:249–84.
Chapter 7: False Attributions, Fabrications, and Falsifications: Phenomena Related to Forgery
Thus Johannes Quasten, Patrology (Utrecht: Spectrum, 1950), 2:412–13.
It is included as part of the canon of the New Testament, for example, in a famous biblical manuscript of the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus.
For the variety of expectations of what the future messiah would be like, see John J. Collins, The Scepter and the Star (New York: Doubleday, 1995) and my brief discussion in Chapter 5.
Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.7.11.
Papias indicates that he received this information from someone who had known the apostles; that is, it comes to us third-hand. See the next note.
For the full text of Papias’s comments, see Bart D. Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers, 2 vols., Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 2:103.
Tertullian Against Marcion 4.5.
I argue this case in my book Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don’t Know About Them) (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2009), pp. 102–12, and probably don’t need to give all the arguments and information yet again here.
For an argument that the author intends to make his readers think he was Paul, see Clare Rothschild, Hebrews as Pseudepigraphon (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009).
For an English translation, see Ehrman, Apostolic Fathers, 2:3–83.
For an English translation, see Bart D. Ehrman and Zlatko Plese, Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
See David Dungan and J. K. Elliott, Art and the Christian Apocrypha (New York: Routledge, 2001).
For an English translation, see Ehrman and Plese, Apocryphal Gospels.
For an English translation, see Ehrman and Plese, Apocryphal Gospels.
The fullest, most recent study is Reidar Aasgaard, The Childhood of Jesus: Decoding the Apocryphal Infancy Gospel of Thomas (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2009).
See my Jesus, Interrupted. As I stress there, this view that the Gospels contain nonhistorical accounts is not just my idiosyncratic idea; it is the consensus of modern critical scholarship and has been for a very long time.
This is the subject of my earlier book Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2005). Here I summarize just a few of the most important points.
See my Misquoting Jesus, pp. 65–68.
See the discussion in Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987) or, more briefly, Misquoting Jesus, pp. 183–86.
Robert Funk, Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar, eds., The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus (New York: Macmillan, 1993), p. 22.
The Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, trans. Joseph Gwilt (London: Priestley and Weale, 1826).
Polybius Histories 9.2.12.
Martial Epigrams 1.66; trans. Walter C. A. Ker, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).
Diogenes Laertius Lives 2.60; 5.93; 8.54; trans. R. D. Hicks, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931).
Chapter 8: Forgeries, Lies, Deceptions, and the Writings of the New Testament
Edgar J. Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha (Boston: Beacon, 1956); Per Beskow, Strange Tales About Jesus: A Survey of Unfamiliar Gospels (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983).
Discussed in Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, pp. 3–14; and Beskow, Strange Tales, pp. 57–65.
See Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha; Beskow, Strange Tales, pp. 20–28; 42–50.
By Roman source I mean any source written by a pagan author of the Roman Empire; Jesus is mentioned in Christian sources, of course, and twice in the writings of the Jewish historian Josephus, though by no other source of the first century.
See Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, pp. 92–96; Beskow, Strange Tales, pp. 16–24.
I have taken the translation from Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, pp. 92–93.
See Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, pp. 97–101.
Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, p. 101.
Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha, pp. 45–49. This tale is based on old traditions, especially popular in the Byzantine Christianity, about Mary and a red egg, which arguably provide the origin for the custom of coloring Easter eggs.
According to Beskow, this account was written by the Anglican clergyman Gieon Ouseley (1835–1906), a committed vegetarian who wrote ten books on vegetarianism and the occult.
Hugh Schonfield, The Passover Plot (New York: Bantam, 1965).
See Chapter 1, n. 16.
See Chapter 1, n. 16.
One of Morton Smith’s most avid supporters, who argues vehemently that the letter of Clement is authentic, is Scott Brown; his fullest study is Mark’s Other Gospel: Rethinking Morton Smith’s Controversial Discovery (Waterloo, ON: Laurier University Press, 2005).
For a popular treatment, see Sissela Bok, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, 3rd ed. (New York: Vintage, 1999).
SEARCHABLE TERMS
Note: The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific passage, please use the search feature of your e-book reader.
Abgar, King, 162–163
Abraham, 30, 42, 194–196
abstinence teachings. See sexual abstinence teachings
Acts of Paul (and Thecla), 18, 81–83, 88, 103–104, 128–129, 233, 262, 270n27
Acts of Peter, 18, 50–52, 233
Acts of Peter and Paul, 155
Acts of the Apostles, 202–209; authorship of, 23, 206–209, 220–221, 286n7; differing from Paul’s writings, 204–206, 208; as a forgery, 208–209; inaccurately aligning Paul with apostles, 63, 202–206; noting Peter’s illiteracy, 75; Paul’s conversion account, 191; summary of, 202–204
Adam, 30, 94
Aeschines, 247
afterlife, 6, 8, 64–65, 89, 106, 213. See also second coming beliefs
Against All Heresies, 221–222
Against Heresies (Irenaeus), 225
Aland, Kurt, 124
Alexander (son of Herod), 27, 40
Alexander the False Prophet (Lucian), 28
Anaximenes, 29
Ancient Literacy (Harris), 70–71
ancient world: copying texts, 240–241; historical writing, 47–49; libraries, 26–27; literacy and education, 70–73; notions of fiction, 45–48; plagiarism, 246–247; religion, 5–7; use of secretaries, 134; view of “noble lie,” 41, 42, 263. See also forgery in the ancient world; Roman Empire
angels, 89, 112, 185
anonymous writing: to boost authority, 223–225; as equivalent to forgery, 119–120; included in New Testament, 10, 23, 220; wrongly attributed, 24, 140, 221–222, 249–250
anti-Semitism, 55–56, 59, 151–152
Antitheses (Marcion), 85–86
Apocalypse of John (Revelation), 21, 30, 64, 105
Apocalypse of Paul, 213
Apocalypse of Peter, 18, 30, 63–65, 274n16
apocalyptic forgeries, 18, 29–31
apocalyptic teachings, evangelical, 105–106
apologetics/apologists, 4, 169–170
apostles: apostolic succession, 7–8; forgeries associated with, 20, 217; Gospels formerly “memoirs of the,” 225; as illiterate, 8; Paul’s
relationship to the, 61, 89, 199, 202–203, 205, 206; spirit-inspired writing from the, 123–125
Apostolic Constitutions, 20, 22, 35, 37, 160, 248–249
Apostolic Tradition, 249
Aramaic, 72, 74, 75, 76, 198
Aristotle, 26, 27, 31
asceticism, 32, 49, 94, 96, 185
Athenagoras, 169
Augustine, 41–42, 160–161, 263
Aurelian, Emperor, 27–28
authority, attribution and, 222–224
Babylon, 68
baptism, 82, 83, 111
Barnabas, 149, 229–232
Beker, J. Christiaan, 109
Beskow, Per, 252, 254
Bible. See New Testament; Old Testament
biblical “conduct codes,” 2, 94
biblical infallibility, 3, 5, 115–117
biography, 46, 47
Birth of Mary, 213
Book of Thomas the Contender, 215–216
Brox, Norbert, 102, 123
Bruce, F. F., 109
Brutus, 134, 137
Buddhism and Jesus hoax, 252–254
Bujard, Walter, 113
Caldwell, Taylor, 79–81
canonical Gospels: as anonymous, 23, 24, 220–221; cast as continuous with Old Testament, 224–225; and the Gospel of Peter, 55–59; lack of resurrection accounts, 17, 57–58; misattributions of, 223–228; possible plagiarism in, 248
Capernaum, 74
celibacy teachings. See sexual abstinence teachings
Cerinthus, 21, 217
childbearing, 94, 100, 103
Christ. See Jesus
Christian apologists, 4, 169–170
Christianity: evangelical, 2–4, 105–106, 115–117, 145–146; legacy of lies and deceptions, 40–42, 261–265; messianic claims, 145–149; second coming beliefs, 105–106; violence and conflict in, 143–145, 176–178. See also early Christianity; modern forgeries and hoaxes
Church History (Eusebius), 52–53, 54, 156, 162
church leaders: authorship of 1 Clement, 222; debates over suspicious documents, 18–19, 21; development of hierarchy, 101–102; encouraging marriage of, 99–100, 103; forged documents to direct, 103; on lying, 41–42; on role of women, 82–83, 94, 103–105
Cicero, 134, 136, 137, 138
Claudius, Emperor, 155
Clement of Alexandria, 42, 261
Clement of Rome, 20, 62, 190, 222
Cleobius, 88, 89, 160
coauthoring theories, 77, 114, 136–137
Colossians, 112–114, 121, 128, 129, 185, 207
“conduct codes,” 2, 94
Confession of Pontius Pilate, The, 259
Coptic Apocalypse of Peter, 213–214
Coptic church, 153
copying texts, 87, 240–242
Corinthian church, 101, 181, 222
creation, 88–89, 95–96
credibility motive, 8–9, 31–32
creeds, 6, 7
crucifixion of Jesus. See Jesus, crucifixion of
Crucifixion of Jesus, by an Eye-Witness, The, 254–256
Daniel, 30, 117, 131
Dante, 64
David (Aristotle commentator), 31
David, King, 146, 224
Dead Sea Scrolls, 255
debates, early Christian, 180–183, 218. See also false teachings
deceptions. See lies and deceptions
Decius, Emperor, 164
deicide, 149
deutero-Pauline letters, 92–93
Dibelius, Martin, 256
Didache, 248–249
Didascalia, 249
Didymus the Blind, 22
Diogenes Laertius, 29, 247
Dionysius (3rd-century scholar), 21
Dionysius the Renegade, 16–17, 27, 29
Diotimus, 29, 40
discovery narrative, 35
divine authority, 7–8
Divine Comedy (Dante), 64
divine knowledge/spark, 96, 210, 211, 214, 215
docetism, 53–54, 57, 59–60, 86, 89
Douglas, J. Archibald, 254
early Christian forgery: blaming Jews for crucifixion, 55–57, 148, 149–152, 171; church leader debates over, 18–19, 21, 22; emergence of, 8–11; evangelical views on, 115–117; false teachings put down by, 88–90, 94, 95, 103, 183–188, 216–218; falsehood to promote “truth,” 144, 216, 217, 218, 250, 265; to fend off pagan attacks, 145, 170–173, 177–178; by Gnostics, 212–216; miracles in, 49–52; New Testament, 9–10, 65–70, 118, 262; noncanonical books, 17–19; overview on, 19–22, 139–141, 262; possible justifications for, 40–42, 262–265; in support of Paul, 87, 199–202; writings of Jesus, 159–163. See also pastoral letter forgeries; Pauline forgeries; Petrine forgeries; scholarly justification of forgery
early Christian forgery list: Acts of Peter, 50–52, 233; Apocalypse of Peter, 18, 30, 63–65; Apostolic Constitutions, 20, 22, 35, 37, 160; Book of Thomas the Contender, 215–216; Colossians, 112–114, 129–130, 185; Coptic Apocalypse of Peter, 213–214; Ephesians, 108–112, 129–130, 143–144; Epistle of Peter, 62–63; Epistula Apostolorum, 217; Gospel of Nicodemus, 150–152, 172–173; Hebrews, 22, 221, 229; James, 192–198; Jude, 186–188; Letters of Paul and Seneca, 18, 90–92, 114, 171; Pseudo-Clementine Writings, 62–63, 190–192; Second Treatise of the Great Seth, 161; Sibylline oracles, 174–176; 3 Corinthians, 88–90, 216; Timothy to the Church, 32–33. See also Acts of the Apostles; Gospel of Peter; pastoral letter forgeries; Pilate Gospels
early Christianity: based on conflict, 143–145; challenges of apostolic succession, 7–8; faith and works debate, 194–198; falsifications in, 240–245; marriage beliefs, 18, 82–83, 94, 99–100, 103–104, 105; overview on debates in, 180–183, 218; pagan opposition to, 67, 145, 165–170, 177; question of plagiarism, 247–249; and the Roman Empire, 163–164; rooted in truth claims, 5–7; salvation through Jesus in, 61, 81, 85, 99, 100, 109–111, 200; spiritual gifts and equality, 100–101; splits over sex, marriage, role of women, 82–83, 103–105. See also church leaders; early Christian forgery; fabrications; false attribution; false teachings; Gnosticism; Jewish/Christian conflicts; Jewish law and Christians; second coming beliefs; sexual abstinence teachings
Ecclesiastes, 117
Edessa, 162–163
Egeria, 163
Empedocles, 247
Enoch, 30
Ephesians, 108–113, 120, 128, 129, 136, 137, 138, 143–144, 197–198
Epicurus, 29, 40
Epiphanius, 212, 213
Epistle of Barnabas, 149, 229–232
Epistle of Peter, 62–63, 189–190, 204
Epistula Apostolorum, 217
equality, 101, 104
Eros, 27–28
Essenes, 255–256
ethical views, 40–42
Euripides, 26, 27
Eusebius, 21, 52–53, 54, 64, 156, 162, 173
evangelical Christians, 2–4, 105–106, 115–117, 145–146
Eve, 94
evidence, 4
exclusivity, religious, 6, 7
fabrications, 232–240; about Peter, 49–52; Acts of Paul, 81–83; Acts of Peter and Paul, 155; Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, 236–237; Infancy Gospel of Thomas, 237–239; in the New Testament, 239–240; overview on, 232–234; Proto-Gospel of James, 234–236
faith, and works, 194–198
false attribution, 220–232; Epistle of Barnabas, 229–232; to increase authority of writing, 222–223; misattribution of the Gospels, 223–228; mistaken, 221–222; New Testament, 220–221, 229; as pseudepigraphy, 24
false teachings, 180–218; attribution of the Gospels and, 225–226, 227; context and authorship, 267n3; and controversy surrounding Paul, 180–182, 188–189, 199–202; early Christian debates overview, 180–183, 218; forgeries to put down, 88–90, 94, 95, 103, 183–188, 216–218; forgery to promote, 8–9; of Marcion, 84–88; targeting Judaism / aligned with Paul, 229–232. See also Gnosticism; Paul, forgeries in opposition to
falsehood. See lies and deceptions falsifications, 240–245
fiction, 45–48
1 Clement, 222
1 Corinthians, 93, 99, 100–101, 111, 193, 244–245
1 John, 23, 221, 223, 229
1 Kings, 224
1 Peter, 66–68, 75–76, 131, 134–139, 171–172, 199–200, 204
1 Samuel, 115, 224
1 Thessalonians, 93, 106–108, 113, 200
1 Timothy, 22, 94–100, 102–103, 138, 188, 208, 232, 244
Five Gospels, The (Jesus Seminar), 246
flesh, 88–90, 96, 211–212, 214–217
the flesh, 89–90, 96
forgery, literary: as deceptive, 9, 10, 25, 36, 37–38, 40; defining, 24–25; detection of, 33; Hitler diaries, 13–15; “honest,” 121; intention of, 25–26, 38–39, 141, 249; as multifunctional, 170–171; techniques of forgers, 19–20, 33–35. See also early Christian forgery; modern forgeries and hoaxes; motivation for forgery; scholarly justification of forgery
forgery in the ancient world: as accepted practice, 119–120, 123–125; apocalyptic, 30–31; condemnation of, 9, 25, 36–37, 39, 140–141, 262; Dionysius’s ruse, 16–17; intention to deceive, 38–39, 119–123, 126; methods of, 33–35; negative words to describe, 37–38, 140; prevalence of, 15, 36; punishment for, 39–40. See also early Christian forgery
fundamentalist Christians, 2–4, 105–106, 115–117, 145–146
Galatians, 61, 93, 99, 101, 110, 113, 134, 189, 191, 193, 195, 204–205
Galen, 26–27, 36–37, 39
Galilee, 73–74
Genesis, 195, 196
genre, literary, 46
Gentile Christians and the law. See Jewish law and Christians
George Washington illustration, 44–45
Gnosticism, 209–217; divine knowledge/spark in, 96, 210, 211, 214, 215; forgeries in opposition to, 216–217; forgeries to promote, 161, 212–216; overview on, 209–212; pastoral letter forgeries linked to, 95–96; salvation through transcendence of the flesh, 96, 211, 214; views on Jesus, 96, 182, 210, 211–212, 214
God: in apocalyptic writings, 30; Bible as inspired by, 115–116, 117; gift of the Spirit of, 100; in Gnosticism, 95–96, 210–211; Marcion’s beliefs on, 85–89, 95, 231; messiah from, 146–149; objective knowledge of, 3; as truth, 41; use of deception by, 42
Golden Rule, 265