The post-war squabble between Allied generals, claiming credit and apportioning blame in their reports and memoirs, was correspondingly ferocious. That keen observer of human frailty Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke was presumably not surprised. He had once written about a row in June between senior naval officers: ‘It is astonishing how petty and small men can be in connection with questions of command.’
Montgomery placed himself at the centre of the post-war storm mainly because of his preposterous assertions that everything had gone according to his master plan. He felt that he should be seen on a par with Marlborough and Wellington and implicitly denigrated his American colleagues. Almost single-handedly, he had managed in Normandy to make most senior American commanders anti-British at the very moment when Britain’s power was waning dramatically. His behaviour thus constituted a diplomatic disaster of the first order. Whatever the merits of his arguments at the end of August 1944 about the planned thrust into Germany, Montgomery mishandled the situation badly. He had also provoked the higher ranks of the Royal Air Force, who were even more enraged than the Americans at his lack of frankness over operations in Normandy.
The usually tolerant Eisenhower refused to forgive Montgomery for the claims he made after the war. ‘First of all he’s a psychopath,’ Eisenhower exploded in an interview in 1963. ‘Don’t forget that. He is such an egocentric that the man - everything he has done is perfect - has never made a mistake in his life.’ It was tragic that Montgomery should have thus diverted attention away from his own undoubted qualities and from the sacrifice of his troops, who had held down the vast bulk of the German panzer formations and faced the greatest concentration of 88 mm anti-tank guns.
Montgomery’s unplanned battle of attrition, as unplanned as the Americans’ bloody slog through the bocage, had of course been handicapped by the delays caused by the appalling weather in mid-June. Yet British and American alike had gravely underestimated the tenacity and discipline of Wehrmacht troops. This was partly because they had failed to appreciate the effectiveness of Nazi propaganda in persuading its soldiers that defeat in Normandy meant the annihilation of their Fatherland. These soldiers, especially the SS, were bound to believe that they had everything to lose. Their armies had already provided so many reasons for Allied anger.
The battle for Normandy did not go as planned, but even the armchair critics could never dispute the eventual outcome, however imperfect. One must also consider what might have happened should the extraordinary undertaking of D-Day have failed: for example, if the invasion fleet had sailed into the great storm of mid-June. The post-war map and the history of Europe would have been very different indeed.
Acknowledgements
There is an old joke that the collective noun for those in my profession is a ‘mischief of historians’. In my experience, this is certainly not true about historians of the Second World War. Facing many lonely months in foreign archives, it makes an enormous difference to be able to discuss sources and theories with others whose opinions and experience you value. Over the years, the unstinting support of colleagues and friends has been both a comfort and a pleasure.
Nearly a decade ago, when I was still fixated with the eastern front, the late Martin Blumenson first urged me to take on the subject of Normandy. He too was interested in comparing the Nazi-Soviet war with the campaign in north-west Europe. Sir Max Hastings has been endlessly generous in loans of material and good suggestions. Professor Tami Davis Biddle of the US Army War College has given wise advice on the air war and provided me with books, papers and photocopies of documents. James Holland has also lent many books and material from his own interviews. Sebastian Cox, the head of the Ministry of Defence Air Historical Branch, is another in the circle of friends forming an irregular lunch-time tertulia, discussing the war. Many other historians have helped with advice and material. They include Rick Atkinson, Professor Michael Burleigh, Professor M. R. D. Foot, Professor Donald L. Miller, Claude Quétel and Niklas Zetterling.
I have been extraordinarily lucky in all the assistance I have received from archivists while researching this book, especially Dr Tim Nenninger, the Chief of Modern Military Records at the National Archives,
Index
Abbaye Blanche
Abbaye d’Ardennes
Abetz, Otto
Abwehr (German military intelligence)
Adair, Maj Gen A.
Airborne assault
aerial support
American (map)
British(map)
casualties
deception measures
embarkation
heavy equipment landings
Alençon
Allied propaganda
Allied troops
British girlfriends
with Frenchwomen
relations with Frenchsee also Looting
AMGOT (Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories)
Amiens
Amis, Kingsley
Andrew, Lt Tom
Angers
Argentan
Arletty (Léonie Bathiat)
Arnim, Lt Dankwart Graf v.
Arromanche
Asnelles
Atlantic Wall
Aulock, GenMaj Hubertus v.
Aunay-sur-Odon
Authie
Avranches
Ay, river
Barenton
Barneville
Barton, Maj Gen Raymond O.
Bavent, Bois de
Bayerlein, GenLt Fritz
Bayeux
de Gaulle visits
liberation of
Bayeux tapestry
BBC
Beauvoir, Simone de
Beck, Sdt Eberhard
Beck, GenOb Ludwig
Bedell Smith, Maj Gen Walter
Below, ObLt Nicolaus v.
Bénouville
Bény-sur-Mer
Berghof (Berchtesgaden)
Berlichingen, Oberst Freiherr v.
Bernay
Bidault, Georges
Billotte, Col Pierre
Bingham, Maj S. V.
Birks, Col Hammond D.
Bittrich, Gruppenführer
Bletchley Park; see also Ultra intercepts
Blumentritt, Gen der Inf. Günther
Bocage
artillery observation
battle of the
descriptions
fighting in
lessons of fighting in implemented
Boegner, Pastor Marc
Boineburg-Lengsfeld, GenLt Hans Freiherr v.
Boissieu, Cpte Alain de
Bombing operations
the airborne assault
Caen
Cherbourg
the crossing
Omaha beach
Operation Cobra
Operation Goodwood
Operation Totalize
Operation Tractable
Saint-Lô, 6 June
sealing off invasion area (Operation Transportation)
Villers-Bocage
Bon Sauveur, convent of the
Bordeaux
Botsford, Lt Gardner
Boulogne
Bradley, Gen Omar N.
and Montgomery, Gen Sir Bernard L.
and Patton, Gen George S.
Brécey
Brest
Brest peninsula
Bretteville-l’Orgueilleuse
Bretteville-sur-Laize
Bréville
British Army
combat exhaustion
conservatism
desertions
infantry shortages
lack of mechanization
manpower crisis
reluctance to help other arms
replacement system
tactics
tank design
tank-infantry cooperation
UK defence force
war-weariness
British Army, 21st Army Group
British Army, Armies
Second Army
Eighth Army
British Army, Corps
I Corps
VIII Corps
XII Corps
XXX Corps
British Army, Divisions
Guards Armd
3rd Inf
6th Airborne
7th Armd
11th Armd
15th Inf (Scottish)
43rd Inf (Wessex)
50th Inf (Northumberland)
51st Inf (Highland)
British Army, Brigades
1st Special Service Bde
3rd Para Bde
4th Armd Bde
5th Para Bde
Guardsh Tank Bde
8th Bde
8th Armd Bde
9th Bde
22nd Armd Bde
29th Armd Bde
33rd Armd Bde
56th Bde
69th Bde
129th Bde
130th Bde
131st Armd Bde
185th Bde
SAS Bde
Special Air Service
British Army, Armd Regiments
1st Northants Yeomanry
2nd Welsh Guards
3rd Royal Tank Rgt
3rd Scots Guards
4th Coldstream
4th County of London Yeomanry
4th/7th Dragoon Guards
5th Inniskilling Dragoon Guards
11th Hussars
13th/18th Hussars
22nd Dragoons
23rd Hussars
44th Royal Tank Rgt
East Riding Yeomanry
Fife and Forfar Yeomanry
Household Cavalry Rgt
Inns of Court
Royal Scots Greys
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry
Staffordshire Yeomanry
Westminster Dragoons
British Army, Infantry Battalions
1/4th King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry
1/5th Queens
1st Dorsets
1st Grenadiers
1st Hampshires
1st King’s Own Scottish Borderers
1st Norfolks
1st Rifle Brigade
1st South Lancashire
1st Suffolk
1st Tyneside Scottish
2nd Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
2nd Devons
2nd East Yorks
2nd Essex
2nd Glasgow Highlanders
2nd King’s Shropshire Light Infantry
2nd Middlesex
2nd Ox and Bucks Light Infantry
2nd South Wales Borderers
2nd Ulster Rifles
2nd Warwicks
4 Commando
4th Dorsets
4th Somerset Light Infantry
5th Black Watch
5th Coldstream
5th Dorsets
5th Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry
5th East Yorks
5th Wiltshires
6 Commando
6th Duke of Wellington’s Rgt
6th Durham Light Infantry
6th Green Howards
7th Norfolks
8th Durham Light Infantry
8th Para
9th Durham Light Infantry
9th Para
12th Para
13th Para
Royal Engineers
Brittany
Brooke, FM Sir Alan (later Viscount Alanbrooke)
Brotheridge, Lt Den
Browning, Lt Gen Sir Frederick (‘Boy’)
Bruce, Col David
Bucknall, Lt Gen Gerard
Buhle, Gen d. Inf Walter
Bull, Maj Gen Harold R.
Bülowius, Gen d. Flieger
Bushey Park (SHAEF headquarters)
‘C’ see Menzies, Sir Stewart
Cabourg
Caen
attack, 7 June
battle for
bombardment of
bombing ofJune
casualties
cholera threat
Civil Affairs entry into
civilians in
de Gaulle visits
envelopment attempt
failure to seize on first day
final shell falls on
German attack, 10 June, cancelled
and the landings
rebuilding
stalemate
victory parade
Caen Canal
Cagny
Calais
Calvados
Cambes
Canadian Army
advance into Caen
battles for Carpiquet airfield
landing Juno
First Canadian Army
II Canadian Corps
Canadian Army, Divisions
2nd Inf
3rd Inf
4th Armd
Canadian Army, Brigades
7th Bde
8th Bde
9th Bde
Canadian Army, Armd Regiments
1st Hussars
British Columbia
Fort Garry Horse
Grenadier Guards of Canada
Sherbrooke Fusiliers
Canadian Army, Infantry Battalions
1st Para
Algonquins
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada
Black Watch of Canada
Calgary Highlanders
Canadian Scottish Rgt
North Nova Scotia Highlanders
North Shore Rgt
Queen’s Own Rifles
Régiment de la Chaudière
Regina Rifles
Royal Winnipeg Rifles
Canham, Col Charles D.
Canisy
Capa, Robert
Carentan
Carpiquet airfield
Casualties
airborne assault
Army Group B total
battle of the bocage
Caen
Cherbourg
combat fatigue and shock
evacuation
Falaise Pocket
first aid treatment
French civilians
Juno beach
officer
Omaha beach
Operation Cobra
Operation Epsom
Operation Goodwood
Operation Totalize
Operation Tractable
Paris
Saint-Lô
Sword beach
totals
totals toJune
treatment of
Utah beach
Villers-Bocage
Caumont
Cerisy, Forêt de
Cerisy-la-Salle
Chaban-Delmas, Jacques
Chambois
Channel Islands
Chartres
Chef du Pont
Cherbourg
advance on
bombing ofJune
capture of(map)
casualties
coastal batteries
conditions afterwards
supplies through
Cherbourg peninsula see Cotentin peninsula
Chevallerie, Gen d. Inf Kurt v..
Choltitz, GenLt Dietrich v.
Christopherson, Lt Col Stanley
Churchill, Winston S.
Cintheaux
Civil Affairs
Clark, Gen Mark
Coastal defences
Colette, Sidonie Gabrielle
Collaborators
head-shaving
treatment of
Colleville-sur-Mer
Collins, Maj Gen J. Lawton
Colville, John (‘Jock’)
Combat fatigue and shock
Combined Operations Beach Reconnaissance and Assault Pilotage Parties (COPP)
Comité Français de Libération Nationale
Commander-in-Chief West (OB West)
Communist propaganda
Communists see French Communist Party
Coningh
am, Air Marshal Sir Arthur
Conseil National de la Résistance
Conspiracy theories, Nazi
Cook, Maj Gen Gilbert
Cooper, Sir Alfred Duff
Corlett, Lt Gen Charles
Cota, Brig Gen Norman D.
Cotentin peninsula (map)
Coudehard, heights of
Coulet, François
Courseulles
Coutances
Crépon
Crerar, Lt Gen Henry
Cristot
Culin, Sgt Curtis G.
Dannhauser, GenLt Paul
Daure, Marianne
Daure, Pierre
DD Sherman tanks
De Gaulle, Gen Charles
arrival in Britain
and Eisenhower
first visit to Normandy
and Leclerc
and the liberation of Paris
relationship with Churchill
and the Resistance
and Roosevelt
victory procession in Paris
visit to Caen
De Guingand, Maj Gen Sir Francis
De Wavrin, André see Passy, Col
Deception operations see Plan Fortitude
Défense Passive
Dempsey, Lt Gen Sir Miles
Dieppe raid
Dietrich, Obergruppenführer Sepp
Dio, Col Louis
Dives, river
Doane, Lt Col Leander L.
Dollmann, GenOb Friedrich
Dönitz, Großadmiral Karl
Double Cross Committee
Douglas, Capt Keith
Douve, river
Douvres-la-Délivrande
Dronne, Cpte Raymond
Dunkirk
Eastern front
Eberbach, Gen. PzTr Hans
Ecouché
Ecouves, Fôret d’
Eddy, Maj Gen Manton S.
Eden, Anthony
Ehrenburg, Ilya
Eisenhower, Gen Dwight D. (‘Ike’)
approves Falaise-Argentan gap plan
and Caen
and de Gaulle
and Montgomery
and Operation Dragoon
and Operation Epsom
and Patton
visits airborne embarkation
Elbeuf
Elfeldt, GenLt Otto
English Channel, crossing
Eon, Col
Erskine, Maj Gen George (‘Bobby’)
Escoville
Esquay
Evrecy
Exercise Tiger
Falaise
Falaise-Argentan gap
Falaise Pocket (map)
Falley, GenLt Wilhelm
Farmbacher, Gen d. Art Wilhelm
Fegelein, Gruppenführer Hermann
Female snipers
Feuchtinger, GenMaj Edgar
FFI (Forces Françaises de l’Intérieur)
Flers
Fontaine l’Abbé
Fontainebleau
Fontenay-le-Marmion
Fontenay-le-Pesnel
Fortitude see Plan Fortitude
Fouquer, Rev Père Roger