Feminine Forever (Wilson), 159–60
feminism, contributions to the practice of good science, 3, 10–12, 21–22, 27, 74, 128, 134, 179–81
Feminist Approaches to Science (Hrdy), 128
fetal brain development, impact of sex hormones, 55–58, 68–70
fetuses, as initially female, 23–24
FGM. See female genital mutilation (FGM)
Fields medal for mathematics, 2
Fine, Cordelia, 67, 84, 89–90
five-alpha-reductase deficiency, 59
Flinn, Mark, 107, 131
Flint, Marcha, 174
Florida State University experiment on casual sex, 120, 132–33
follicles: depletion of, 168; monthly release of, 159
foot binding, China, 142
Foreman, Amanda, 142
Fossey, Dian, 96
Franklin, Rosalind, 9
From Eve to Evolution: Darwin, Science, and Women’s Rights in Gilded Age America (Hamlin), 19
functional magnetic resonance imaging, 81–83
Galaburda, Albert, 56–57
Galton, Francis, 17
Gamble, Eliza Burt, 19–22, 27, 74, 108
Gardener, Helen Hamilton (Alice
Chenoweth Day), 74–76, 81 gathering activities, 109–10
Geddes, Patrick, 17
Geertz, Clifford, 125
gender: and limitations on women’s work, 16; women’s rights movement, 16–17, 21
gender, gender identity: as biologically determined, 3, 12, 18, 27, 48, 52–54, 80–81; complementarity principle, 17, 80–81, 94; emergence of, in early childhood, 50–51; gender similarities hypothesis, 61, 64; in human embryos, 24; and neurosexism, 84; in newborns, 53–54; and primate studies, 55–56; and sexual behaviors, 120–21; sex vs., 28; as socially and culturally determined, 14–17, 19–20, 28, 50–51, 56, 88–93, 127, 146, 180; spectrum for, 26, 70. See also females, women; males, men; sex hormones; sexuality, female
“Gender Differences in Receptivity to Sexual Offers” (Clark and Hatfield), 121
genetic research, 38–41
genitals, sex effects, 92
Geschwind, Norman (Geschwind-Behan-Balabura theory), 56–57
gibbons, 155
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 18, 74
Gliga, Teodora: on challenges of baby research, 50–51; on gender differences as a continuum, 70; on the importance of replication, 67–68; on sex differences in performance, 64
Goodall, Jane, 96, 110, 149–50
Goulden, Marc, 4
Gowaty, Patricia, 130, 133–37
Goy, Robert, 55–56
the grandmother hypothesis: critiques of, 173; Gurven’s two-sex model for, 172; Hawkes’s research, 163–65, 168–69; survival benefits, 166, 167; Williams’ elaboration of, 163
Griffin, Bion, 114–15, 118
Grossi, Giordana, 66–67
Grunspan, Dan, 5–6
Guillebaud, John, 38
Gur, Raquel, 78–80, 84, 88
Gur, Ruben: complementarity hypothesis, 79–81; critiques of, 84, 88; on sex differences in the human brain, 76–79, 93; support for, 85–86
Gurven, Michael: on bias in human research, 173; on male contributions to human longevity, 172; on male nipples, 170; revision of hunting hypothesis, 111–12, 118
Hadza hunter-gatherers, Tanzania: alloparents among, 102; differing anthropological perspectives on, 164; fathering among, 106; gender equality, 117; male hunting, 111; role of older women, 171
Halpern, Diane, 90–91
Hamadryas baboons, 149
Hamlin, Kimberly, 7, 19, 21
Hammond, William Alexander, 74–76
Hanuman langur monkeys, 97–98, 149, 154
“Hardworking Hadza Grandmothers” (Hawkes), 164
Hatfield, Elaine, 120–21, 127, 132–33
Hawkes, Kristen: critiques of, 112, 173; on feminist contributions to science, 12; and the grandmother hypothesis, 163–64, 168–69, 174–75; on hunting as a reliable food source, 111; support for, 171, 174
health differences, female vs. male, 32, 34–41, 45–47
Heape, Walter, 21–22
Hecht, Heiko, 132–33
Hill, Kim, 107, 111–12, 117–18, 131
Himba nomadic farmers, Namibia, 129–30, 132
Hines, Melissa: on replication in science, 62; research with intersex people, 61–62; studies of impacts of prenatal testosterone, 58, 69, 72; studies of sex differences in intelligence and behavior, 63–65, 84
hippocampus, sex-related size differences, 84–85
Holmes, Donna, 173
hormone replacement therapy for menopause, 160–61
hormones, role of, 23. See also sex hormones
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer: challenges to gender stereotypes, 98–99, 103–4, 142–43, 147–48; cooperative breeding systems, 102; on language development in humans, 112; on multiple mating, 127; primatology research and findings, 96–98, 100–101, 103–4; resistance to sexism in science, 99–100, 128; and the role of grandmothers, 165–66
hunter-gatherer societies: alloparents, 102; anthropological studies of, 101–2; and the division of workloads, 113–14; egalitarian, 116–18; and female hunters, 114–15, 118–19; importance to human evolutionary history, 107–8
hunting: by females, evidence from chimpanzees, 110–11; by females among the Nanadukan Agta, 114–15; by males, assumptions about, 3, 107–13; and strength required of female gatherers, 113; as variable food source, implications, 111; view of as incompatible with motherhood, 118
The Hunting Hypothesis (Ardrey), 108
Hurtado, Ana Magdalena, 119
Hyde, Janet Shibley, 64
immune system, female, 35–36
India, preference for male children, 29–30
infanticide, feticide, 97–98, 104, 178
infants. See children
infibulation, 140
intelligence, sex-related differences, 63–65, 72–76, 84, 90, 110, 112–13
intersex people, 59–61
intuitiveness, as female trait, 80. See also empathizing-systemizing theory
Jacklin, Carol Nagy, 64
Jacobson, Anne Jaap, 92–93
Japanese macaques, 145
Joel, Daphna, 84, 91–93
Jordan-Young, Rebecca, 89–90
Kachel, Friederike, 168
Kaiser, Anelis, 89–90
Kennard, Caroline, 13–16
Khurana, Mitu, 29–30
Kidd, Celeste, 112–13
killer whales (orcas), 162, 166–67
Kim, Yong-Kyu, 135
Klein, Sabra, 37
Konner, Melvin, 117–18, 146, 177–78
Kuhle, Barry, 167–68
!Kung hunter-gatherers, southern Africa: alloparents among, 102; hunting by males, 111; role of women, 109, 113
Laland, Kevin, 131
Lancaster, Chet, 108
language development in humans, 112
Lawn, Joy, 31–32, 34
Lee, Richard, 109, 113
left-handedness, 57
Lerner, Gerda, 146–47
Leslie, Sarah-Jane, 66
life expectancy, sex differences in, 33, 165, 168–72
life-span-artifact hypothesis, 165
Linton, Sally (Sally Slocum), 108–10, 112
Lummaa, Virpi, 167–68, 170
Lutchmaya, Svetlana, 68
Lyon, Mary Frances, 40
Maccoby, Eleanor, 64
Maguire, Eleanor, 89
males, men: behavioral differences, baby research, 50; brain size studies, 72–73; disease incidence and virulence, 34, 36–37, 39–41; hormonal response to contact with babies, 105; intelligence of, comparisons with females, 64–65, 75; mate guarding behaviors, 141–43; as naturally polygamous, 121–26; and the patriarch theory, 167, 170–71; preference for younger women, 169–71, 173; response to medications, 44–46; sexual behaviors, 120–21; and sexual insecurity, 137–38, 146, 178; sperm activity
as metaphor for, 17; stereotypes associated with, 5, 9, 16, 23–26, 52, 61–64, 66, 84, 110; and the Y chromosome, 39
malnutrition, 38
Man the Hunter (Washburn and Lancaster), 108
“Man the Hunter” symposium, University of Chicago, 107–8
Marlowe, Frank, 170–73
Martin, Carol Lynn, 50–51
Martu hunter-gatherers, Western Australia, 119
Mason, Mary Ann, 4
mate guarding behaviors. See sexual jealousy, mate guarding
maternal instinct, myths about, 103–4
math, math achievement: changing sex ratios associated with, 90; underrepresentation of women, 2, 65–66
Matthews, Paul: on cognitive neuroscience, 82; on diffusion tensor imaging, 78; on early research errors, 83–84; on inter-individual variability in brain function, 93; on studies of brain plasticity in adults, 89; study of toy type and brain development, 76, 90
Mbendjele hunter-gathers, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 116–17
McEwen, Bruce, 55–56
McManus, Chris, 57
Mead, Margaret, 26–27
medical research: binary nature of, 47; exclusion of women from, rationale, 43; focus on males, 43; implications for women’s health and treatment, 44–45, 48; requirement to include women as test subjects, 47; sex differences in treatment response, 44–47
Meitner, Lise, 8–9
men. See males, men
Men: Evolutionary and Life History (Bribiescas), 105–6
menopause: alternatives to the grandmother hypothesis, 168; changing attitudes towards, 161, 174; and depletion of sex hormones, 159; evolutionary origins, 165, 169–73; evolution of, factors contributing to, 162–67; first recorded mention, 165; historical misunderstanding and fear of, 158; and hormone replacement therapy, 160–61; medicalization of, 160, 174; in nonhuman species, 162; as protective, 163
menstruation, 35–36, 38
Meriam hunter-gatherers, Torres Strait Islands, 118
Mesopotamia, ancient, female subjugation in, 146–47
Miller, Amber, 113
Miller, David, 90–91
Miller, Geoffrey, 126
The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Schiebinger), 7
The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, the Inferior Sex, or the Opposite Sex (Tavris), 179–80
modesty, female. See virginity, female chastity
monogamy: evolution of, factors contributing to, 125–26; and partible patrimony, 107; and sexual selection theory, 121–25; stereotypes associated with, 121–22
Montagu, Ashley, 29, 176–78
Montagu, Mary Wortley, 177
Morton, Richard, 169–171, 173
Moss-Racusin, Corinne, 5
Mosuo society, China, 130–31
motherhood, mothers: and alloparents, 101–2, 165–66; hormonal response to contact with babies, 105; humans compared with primates, 100–101; primate mothers, 101; role in gender-socializing of infants, 71–72; stereotypes about, 118. See also children; the grandmother hypothesis
Mother Nature (Hrdy), 146–48
Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding (Hrdy), 101–2, 165–66
Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff, 131
Muller, Martin, 106, 149
multiple mating among females, 127, 129–31
Nanadukan Agta hunter-gathers, Luzon, Philippines, 114–16, 118
Nash, Alison, 66–67
National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act, 47
The Natural Superiority of Women (Ashley Montagu), 176, 178
The Nature and Evolution of Female Sexuality (Sherfey), 144–46
Nepal, work expected of female children in, 30
neurofeminism, 92–93
neuroscience: neurosexism, 83–84; and sex differences research, 75, 77, 83–84; technological innovations, implications, 81–82
Nobel Prize, 2
No Change: Biological Revolution for Women (Cooper), 160
Noether, Emmy, 8
the Nordic Paradox, 179
nuclear families, 107
O’Connell, James, 111
O’Connor, Cliodhna, 88
Oertelt-Prigione, Sabine, 35–38, 40–42, 47
orangutans, male dominance, 149
orgasm, female, 125, 144–45
Oudshoorn, Nelly, 24, 26
the ovum, female egg, 17
oxytocin, and response to babies, 105
Palanan Agta hunter-gatherers, Philippines, 116–17
Paleofantasy (Zuk), 113
“Parental Investment and Sexual Selection” (Trivers), 123
Parish, Amy, 150–54, 156
partible patrimony, 107, 131
Patmore, Coventry, 16
patriarchal societies, establishment of, 146–49
patriarch theory of male longevity (patriarch hypothesis), 170–72
Pavlicev, Mihaela, 145
pharmacology research, focus on males, 43
physics, women working in, 2
Piaget, Jean, 50
Piantadosi, Steven, 112–13
pigeons, male dominance in, 137–38
Pinker, Steven, 51–52, 125–26
plasticity, brain, 89–92
PLOS ONE, apology for gender bias in editorial policy, 6
polygamy, 121–26
postmenopausal women: healthy and active, challenges posed by, 161–62, 165–66, 173; and hormone treatments, 159; incarceration, 157–58; infertility of, 158–59. See also the grandmother hypothesis; menopause patriarch theory of male longevity
“preferential-looking” experiments, 53
pregnancy, 32–33, 35–36, 113
primates: close relationship of mothers with children, 100–101; fertility, 102; gender-cooperative species, 155; life expectancy among, 165; males, dominance behaviors, 148–49
primatology: female researchers, 96; focus on chimpanzees, 151; importance to human evolutionary history, 94–95, 154; male focused research, 97–100; and the origins of patriarchy, 148–49
property, women as, and sexual repression of women, 146–48
psychologists, evolutionary, data on sex-related differences, 94–95
The Psychology of Sex Differences (Maccoby and Jacklin), 64
Puleston, Cedric, 172
Quinton, Richard, 23–24, 27, 59–60
Radcliffe, Paula, 113
Rademaker, Marius, 44
Ralls, Katherine, 155
replication of scientific research, importance, 62, 67–68, 135
reproductive cost hypothesis for menopause, 168
rhesus macaque, 149
Richardson, Sarah, 42, 45, 47
right-brain development, 56–57
Rippon, Gina: on brain plasticity studies, 89–90; on complementarity, 81, 87; on neurosexism, 83–84; on the political implications of research, 87–88; on uniqueness of each brain, 91
Romanes, George John, 17, 75–76
Rosenberg, Karen, 102
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 80–81
Royal Society of London, election of women to, 7
Ruble, Diane, 50
running, endurance, 113
Ruti, Mari, 9
Sandberg, Kathryn, 34–36, 38, 45
Saudi Arabia, women in, 143–44
Scelza, Brooke, 128–33
Schiebinger, Londa, 7–8, 16
scientific research: blind experimental designs, 66; as more gray than black and white, 11–12; myth of objectivity of, 55, 87; replication and, 62, 67–68, 135; on sex differences, 9–10, 56–58, 62; sexism in research approaches and findings, 3–4, 9, 21, 56, 87, 99; standard deviation and significance, 62–63; by women, 2, 4–5, 7–9, 65–66. See also specific scientific disciplines
Sear, Rebecca, 106, 166, 170
senescence hypothesis for menopause, 168
sex, gender vs., 28
Sex Antagonism (Heape), 21–22
sex chromosomes, 38–42
sex hormones: beh
avioral impacts, 55–56; behavioral impacts, animal research, 55–56; biological function, 23–24; and brain development, 52, 55–58, 68–70; and definitions of masculinity and femininity, 25; discovery of, 23, 26; female, and immune system advantages, 35–37; and gender identity, 25–26, 61; intersex individuals, 59–61; ongoing research related to, 27; as treatments, 24–25, 159. See also menopause
“Sex in Brain” talk (Gardener), 74
Sex Itself: The Search for Male and Female in the Human Genome (Richardson), 41–42,45
sex ratios, skewing of towards males, 30
Sexual Differentiation of the Brain (Goy and McEwen), 56
sexual dimorphism, 93
sexuality, female: and assumptions about norms, 121; and breast ironing, 142; Engels’s views on, 146; and female genital mutilation, 139–41; and female orgasm, 125, 144–45; and foot binding, 142; forced marriage, domestic violence and rape, 143–44; and Hrdy’s views on, 144–45; and infidelity, Scelza’s findings, 128–29; and menstrual huts, 142; and moral double standards, 143–44, 146–48; and Sherfey’s views on, 144, 145–46; and slavery, 147; stereotypes associated with, 120–21, 128; and women as property, 146–48. See also sexual jealousy, mate guarding; virginity, female chastity
sexual jealousy, mate guarding, 138, 141, 143, 146–47, 149
sexual selection theory, 121–25, 128, 135–37
Seymour, Jane Katherine, 25
Sherfey, Mary Jane, 144–46
Short, Nigel, 87
Singh, Rama, 169–71, 173
Smuts, Barbara, 148–51, 154
Somalia, female genital mutilation in, 139
South Asia. See Asia, South Asia
spatial processing: as male skill, 80; role of white matter in, 79
Spitzka, Edward, 75
standard deviation, 62–63
Stanford, Craig, 150, 153
Starin, Dawn, 101, 103, 127
Steinem, Gloria, 157
Steinichen, Rebecca, 134–35
Stevens, Nettie Maria, 8
Stone, Jonathon, 169–71, 173
subsistence living, strength and endurance required for, 113
Summers, Lawrence, 2, 51–52, 65
survival, females vs. males, 32–37, 41, 114
Symons, Don: critique of Gowaty’s research, 135–36; critique of Hrdy’s research, 128; critique of Sherfey’s research, 144; sexual selection theory, 125–26
Tang-Martínez, Zuleyma, 127–28, 136–37
Tapscott, Rebecca, 142
Tavris, Carol, 179–80
testosterone, 25, 27. See also sex hormones
Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall, 164–65
Thomson, John Arthur, 17, 22
titi and tamarin monkeys, 103, 155