CHAPTER 9
There’s no shortage of publications on the many aspects of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, but the Icelandic Meteorological Office, the University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences, and the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police compiled an authoritative report in June 2012 for the International Civil Aviation Organization. It is available via the IMO’s English-language web site, http://en.vedur.is. Also see Magnús T. Gudmundsson et al, ‘Ash generation and distribution from the April–May 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland,’ Scientific Reports, vol. 2, 572 (2012), as well as F. Sigmundsson et al, ‘Intrusion triggering of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull explosive eruption,” Nature, vol. 468, pp. 426–430 (2010).
For rates of Icelandic eruption over time, see T. Thordarson and G. Larsen, ‘Volcanism in Iceland in historical time: volcano types, eruption styles and eruptive history,’ Journal of Geodynamics, vol. 43, pp. 118–152 (2007).
For Popocatépetl, see Claus Siebe et al, ‘Repeated volcanic disasters in Prehispanic time at Popocatépetl, central Mexico: past key to the future?’, Geology, vol. 24, pp. 399–402 (1996). Archaeological digs at the site are described in Patricia Plunket and Gabriela Uruñuela, ‘Appeasing the volcano gods,’ Archaeology, vol. 51 (1998).
For Mount Rainier, see James W. Vallance et al, ‘Debris-flow hazards caused by hydrologic events at Mount Rainier, Washington,’ USGS Open-File Report 03–368 (2003). For Mount St. Helens, see Vallance et al, ‘Mount St. Helens: A 30-year legacy of volcanism,’ EOS, vol. 91, pp. 169–170 (2010).
Steve Self warned about VEI 6–7 events at the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth (IAVCEI) conference in July 2013 in Kagoshima, Japan.
For Asian volcanic risk, see Susanna Jenkins et al, ‘Regional ash fall hazard I: a probabilistic assessment methodology,’ Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 74, pp. 1699–1712 (2012). For the mystery eruption in 1258, see Richard B. Stothers, ‘Climatic and demographic consequences of the massive volcanic eruption of 1258,’ Climatic Change, vol. 45, pp. 361–374 (2000). The Spitalfields excavation, and the possible link to a volcanic eruption, are detailed in the Museum of London Archaeology monograph ‘A bioarchaeological study of medieval burials on the site of St. Mary Spital: excavations at Spitalfields Market, London E1, 1991–2007” (2012). For the Rinjani identification, see F. Lavigne et al, ‘Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani volcanic complex, Indonesia,’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, doi:10.1073/pnas.1307520110 (2013).
Supereruptions lend themselves to dramatic sounding papers, such as Michael R. Rampino, ‘Supereruptions as a threat to civilizations on earth-like planets,’ Icarus, vol. 156, pp. 562–569 (2002). Also see S. Self, ‘The effects and consequences of very large explosive volcanic eruptions,’ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 364, pp. 2073–2097 (2006), and S. Sparks et al, ‘Super-eruptions: global effects and future threats,’ Report of a Geological Society of London Working Group (2005).
Monitoring details are sourced from John P. Lockwood and Richard W. Hazlett, Volcanoes: Global Perspectives (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010). On the topic of climate change and magma generation, see Carolina Pagli and Freysteinn Sigmundsson, ‘Will present day glacier retreat increase volcanic activity? Stress induced by recent retreat and its effect on magmatism at the Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland,’ Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 35, L09304 (2008), as well as Hugh Tuffen, ‘How will melting of ice affect volcanic hazards in the twenty-first century?’ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 368, pp. 2535–2558 (2010). For more on this general topic, see Bill McGuire, Waking the Giant: How a Changing Climate Triggers Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Volcanoes (Oxford University Press, 2012).
EPILOGUE
Details of the Heimaey fire mass came via Helga Hallsbergsdóttir, of Heimaey, and the photographs of Sigurgeir Jónsson.
Photo Credits
All maps created by Theresa Dubé © Author
TITLEPAGE
Hekla engraving © Depositphotos
INTRODUCTION
Man vs lava © Sigurgeir Jónasson
Heimaey’s harbour © Author photo
CHAPTER 1
Mauna Loa eruption © J.D. Griggs, US Geological Survey
Church in Skógar © Author photo
Laki crater © Author photo
Church ornaments © Author photo
Eyjafjallajökull lightning © Snaevarr Gudmundsson/Getty Images
CHAPTER 2
Wegener/Villumsen © Archive for German Polar Research/Alfred Wegener Institute
Mid-ocean ridges © Wikimedia Commons
Tectonic plates © US Geological Survey
Subducting ocean plates © US Geological Survey
Mid-Atlantic Rift © US Geological Survey
Ortelius’s map of Iceland © helmink.com
Katla’s 1918 eruption © University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences
May 11 2010 ash plume from Eyjafjallajökull © NASA
Grímsvötn August 2011 © Henrik Thorburn/Wikimedia Commons
CHAPTER 3
Yellowstone geyser © Author photo
Toba space shot © Google Earth
Santorini overview © Google Earth
Pompeii fresco © Mark Ellingham
Tambora from space © NASA Earth Observatory
Krakatau eruption lithograph © Royal Society
CHAPTER 4
Prestbakki altar © Author photo
Laki lava flow map © Author sketch, after Fig. 7 in Thordarson & Self 1993
Sheep farmers after Grímsvötn eruption © Getty Images
Laki lava flows with moss © Author photo
CHAPTER 5
Herschel 20-foot telescope © The Scientific Papers of Sir William Herschel (1912)
August 1783 meteor © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow 2013
Erban Prague engraving © Prague City Museum
CHAPTER 6
Benjamin Franklin engraving © Library of Congress
NICL deep freezer © US Geological Survey
Nile river drops, from Oman 2006 © Courtesy Alan Robock; graphic from
Oman et al 2006, based on data from Kondrashov et al 2005
Volcanic atmospheric cooling © Berkeley Earth
CHAPTER 7
Crater row northeast © Author photo
Klaustur’s memorial chapel © Author photo
Jón Helgason © Author photo
Leading a pony through ash from Grímsvötn © AFP/Getty Images
Page from Book of Fire © Author photo
CHAPTER 8
Lake Nyos degassing © Bill Evans, US Geological Survey
Unzen pyroclastic flows © T. Kobayashi/University of Kagoshima; US Geological Survey
Pele, the Hawaiian fire goddess © Author photo
Egil Skallagrímsson © Wikimedia Commons
London smog © Popperfoto/Getty Images
CHAPTER 9
Icelandair plane ‘Eyjafjallajökull’ © AFP/Getty Images
Klaustur farmer with mask © Ingolfur Juliusson/Reuters/Corbis
Evacuation route for Popocatépetl, Mexico © Hector Aiza Ramirez/Demotix/Corbis
GPS antenna at Porkchop, Yellowstone © USGS
Acknowledgements
This book would not have been possible without the generous help of many. To begin with we must acknowledge Lindy Elkins-Tanton, who over dinner at a Boulder restaurant some years ago made the fatal comment of suggesting that a book about Laki would be a good idea.
We are also indebted to the scholarship of true Laki experts, foremost among them Thorvaldur Thordarson of the University of Iceland. Thordarson’s work on the Laki eruption – its details and consequences, both scientific and cultural – is unmatched, and you will find many of his papers referenced in the endnotes. He also shared many of his experiences in an in-person interview. Thordarson’s former advisor, Stephen Self of the US Nuclear Regulatory
Among the younger generation of Icelandic volcano experts, we are particularly indebted to Anja Schmidt of the University of Leeds and John Stevenson of the University of Edinburgh. Both endured lengthy sets of pestering questions, and both graciously provided technical comments on portions of the manuscript. Any errors that remain are, of course, ours.
In Iceland, England and the United States, we benefitted from the advice of many volcanologists and historians. Among them, and in no particular order, we thank Haraldur Sigurdsson, Freysteinn Sigmundsson, Benedikt Ofeigsson, Bergrún Óladóttir, Sveinbjörn Rafnsson, Helga Hallbergsdóttir, Jón Torfason, Astrid Ogilvie, Alan Robock, Rosanne D’Arrigo, Peter Baxter, Emmanuel Garnier, Richard Payne, Rudolf Brázdil, Michael Fell, Ian Skilling, Emily Constantine Mercurio, Hugh Tuffen, Ben Edwards, John Maclennan, Sue Loughlin, Stephen Sparks and Ken Carslaw.
Dave McGarvie was immensely helpful for Icelandic logistics and background information.
In Klaustur itself, we thank Jón Helgason, the local keeper of the Laki flame, and Sveinn Jensson of the Icelandair Hotel Klaustur for facilitating much of our visit. Hólasport provided transportation to the Laki crater row. The National and University Library of Iceland allowed us access to one of the original Eldrit manuscripts. Geoff Hargreaves brought out the Laki sample for us at the National Ice Core Laboratory in Denver.
A journalism fellowship from the European Geosciences Union helped with travel costs. The University of Washington’s Friday Harbor Laboratories provided us a tranquil writing space in their Helen Riaboff Whiteley Center in the San Juan Islands.
William West, Carol Witze, Brendan Borrell and Mason Inman provided useful feedback on the writing. Jim Williams, Chris Witze, Torben Brun and Elle Jauffret helped with translation issues. An unnamed librarian at the USGS library in Reston, Virginia, has our eternal thanks for scanning the Helland map of the crater row, and Kathleen Cassaday and her colleagues at the Boulder Public Library efficiently fulfilled many requests for obscure Icelandic documents. Colleagues at Science News and Nature magazines put up with Alex’s obsessions with all things volcanic, and Twitter colleagues including but not limited to Erik Klemetti provided an excellent sounding board for virtual volcanological discussions.
We thank Anna Carmichael at the Abner Stein literary agency, and especially Jeff’s agent Regula Noetzli who launched the project into reality. Jonathan Buckley provided insightful line editing, and Mark Ellingham of Profile Books championed the idea from the start. Thanks also to Henry Iles for design, Bodhan Buciak for proofreading and Caroline Wilding for the index.
Above all we are grateful to our family, to whom we dedicate this book.
Alexandra Witze and Jeff Kanipe
Boulder, Colorado, January 2014.
Index
Page references for photographs, illustrations and maps are in italics
A
Africa 132, 140–1
Agung, Mount 142
air travel 56–7, 188–90
Alaska
Katmai eruption 80, 139
Laki eruption 133
Alsace 78
Altai Mountains 132
Althing 48–9
Ambrose, Stanley 67
Ambrym 175
Anak Krakatau 84
Anaxagoras 36
Aristotle 117, 118
Armero, Colombia 169
Asama, Mount 141
ash clouds 37–8, 66, 191–2, 193
Eyjafjallajökull 38, 56–7, 187–90
Grímsvötn 97
Laki 107–12
Vesuvius 72
Atlantis 69
atmospheric chemistry 129–32
atmospheric extinction 110
atmospheric pollution 179–82
Schmidt study 183–4
see also smog
Azores 175
B
Bardabunga 51
Baxter, Peter 177–8
Bengal 80
Bessastadir 104
Blake, William 50
Book of Fire (Jón Steingrímsson) 25, 159–62, 160
Brugmans, Sebaldi 182
Byron, Lord 78–9
C
Cameroon 163–7
carbon dioxide 165–6, 170–1
Cascades 45, 195
see also St. Helens, Mount
cataclysmic eruptions 63
Champseru, France 182
Chichón, El 132, 142, 198
China 132, 142
chlorine 22
Church Farm, Heimaey 7, 8, 10
climate 129–32
and Laki eruption 112–13, 120–4, 127–8, 133–4, 138–45
and Tambora eruption 78–80
and Toba eruption 66–7
Colombia 169
colossal eruptions 64
continental drift 39–40, 41, 44
Cooper, William 116
Corsica 114
Cortés, Hernán 194–5
Cosiguina 142
Cowper, William 118, 120, 121
D
‘Darkness’ (Byron) 79
D’Arrigo, Rosanne 142–3
de Lamanon, Robert 110
de Montredon, Morgue 128–9
de Volney, Constantin 140–1
debris flows 169
Denmark 25, 121
Donora, Pennsylvania 179–80
Dresden 122
E
earthquakes 44, 199–201
Eyjafjallajökull eruption 185
Laki eruption 16, 17, 21, 31, 33, 94, 95, 115
Ecuador, Quilotoa 198
Egil 175–7, 176
Egypt 24, 141
El Niño 141, 143
Eldfell, Heimaey 13, 14
Eldgjá 60
Eldmessa see Fire Mass
Eldrit (Jón Steingrímsson) 25, 159–62, 160
Etna, Mount 10, 35, 49, 70, 131
Eyjafjallajökull
2010 eruption 32, 38, 55–8, 63, 185–7, 190
ash plume 56–7, 57, 187–90
fluorine 175
glacial outburst flood 186–7
F
Faroe Islands 107
Feinemann, Maureen 175
Fire Mass
Heimaey 203–4
Klaustur 87–90, 152, 153, 154, 204
Fire Mountain, Heimaey 13, 14
‘Fire Treatise’ (Jón Steingrímsson) 25, 159–62, 160
fireballs 115–18, 117, 127–8
Fjathará river 89
floods
Europe 121–2
Eyjafjallajökull 186–7
Grímsvötn 59, 169
Katla 21, 54, 55
Laki 96
fluorine 98, 174–8, 193
Laki 22, 24
fluorosis 97–8, 174–8
France
deaths 119–20
flooding 122
haze 107–8, 109, 110, 115, 118–20, 125–8, 182
revolution 24, 145
smog 24
Frankenstein (Shelley) 78
Franklin, Benjamin 125–8, 127, 129, 132
Fukushima nuclear plant 199
G
Galeras 169
Galunggung, Mount 56
Germany 108, 110
geysers 61, 62
Gigjökull 187
glacial outburst floods 54
Eyjafjallajökull 186–7
Grímsvötn 59, 169
Katla 21, 54, 55
Laki 96
Glicken, Harry 168
Godi, Snorri 49
Grattan, John 145, 182
Greece, Santorini 68–70
Greenland, ice cores 134–8
Grímsvötn 58–9, 58
2011 eruption 59, 97, 156–9, 157, 190
flood 59, 169
Gudbrandur, Bishop 50
G
udmundsson, Magnús Tumi 158
H
Halley, Edmond 117–18
Hamilton, Sir William 74
Hannesdóttir, Thórunn 27–8, 30
death 105
in Eldrit 160, 162
gravestone 153
Hargreaves, Geoff 135–7
Hawaii 45–6
controlling lava flows 9–10
Kilauea 38, 46, 171–4, 199
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 171–2, 199
haze see smog
Heimaey 7–8, 9, 9, 10–14, 12
Fire Mass 203–4
Hekla 49–50, 52, 128
eruptions 51–3
fluorosis 97–8, 174
Helgafell, Heimaey 13
Helgason, Jón 151–4, 154, 156–7
Herculaneum 71, 168
Herschel, William 110, 111, 113, 116–17
Hess, Harry 41–2
Holland 111–12, 121, 182
Holtsá river 89
Humphreys, W.J. 80
Hverfisfljót river 92, 94
hydrogen sulphide 170–1
I
Iceland
future eruption risks 190–4, 201–2
money 104
supernatural powers 26–7
volcanoes 35–6, 46–60
weather radar systems 188
see also Heimaey; Klaustur; Laki
Icelandair 189
India
and Laki eruption 24, 141
and Toba eruption 67
Indonesia 169, 201
Agung 142
Rinjani 198
Tambora 64, 74–80, 77, 142, 170, 196
Toba 64–8, 65, 198–9
see also Krakatau
International Civil Aviation Organization 188
Ireland
Great Frost 144
and Iceland 30
and Laki eruption 114
and Tambora eruption 79
Ísleifsson, Trausti 146–50, 157, 159
Italy
and Laki eruption 112, 115
Pozzuoli 70
Stromboli 63, 70
Vesuvius 70–4, 73, 168, 194, 199
see also Sicily
J
Jaggar, Thomas 171–2, 199
Japan
Asama 141
earthquakes 44
Fukushima nuclear plant 199
and Laki eruption 24, 141
Unzen 168, 170
Java 75, 76
Jensson, Sveinn 156, 157
Johnston, David 168
jökulhlaups see glacial outburst floods
Jónsson, Arngrímur 50
Jónsson, Thorsteinn Lúther 204