13. E.g. Lazenby (1978), pp. 79–80, Connolly (1981), pp. 184–187, and Delbrück (1975), pp. 325–327.
14. Greek practice of putting bravest in the front and rear ranks, see Xenophon, Mem. 3. 19, Aescepiodotus, Tactics 14. 6; on the role of the optio see M. Speidel, The Framework of an Imperial Legion (Cardiff, 1992), pp. 24–26.
15. Delbrück (1975), p. 325.
16. Trebia, Polybius 3. 74. 3–6; Trasimene, Polybius 84. 3–7; Roman emphasis on bia Polybius 1. 37. 7–10.
17. At Metaurus in 207 BC the consul C. Claudius Nero controlled the right, the praetor L. Porcius Licinus the centre and the other consul M. Livius Drusus Salinator the left, in spite of the fact that the battle was fought under his command, Livy 27. 98.
18. Crossing the river in two columns, Polybius 3. 113. 6.
19. Polybius 3. 114. 4.
20. Zama, Polybius 15. 9. 1–11. 12, Livy 30. 32. 1–33. 11.
21. Ecnomus as the model for Cannae see W. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments (Cambridge, 1930), p. 165, J. Thiel, A History of Roman Sea-power Before the Second Punic War (Amsterdam, 1954), pp. 120–121, and Walbank 1 (1970), p. 87, as well as the refutation of this view in J. Lazenby, The First Punic War (London, 1996), pp. 94–95 and p. 185, n. 20.
22. Ennius Fragment 282.
23. Polybius 3. 115. 1, Livy 22. 47. 1. On missile ranges see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 183–190.
24. For an example of a protracted skirmish resulting in few fatalities and no decisive result, Josephus Bellum Judaicum 3. 150–154; studies of twentieth century combat, see S.L.A. Marshall, Men Against Fire (New York, 1947), esp. pp. 51–54, 65.
25. Telamon, Polybius 2. 30. 1–4; Galatia, 189 BC, Livy 38. 21; for the supposed reform of 211 and the poor quality of Roman skirmishers before this date, see M. Samuels, ‘The Reality of Cannae’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 47 (1990), pp. 7–31.
26. Livy 22. 49. 1.
27. Polybius 3. 115. 2–4, Livy 22. 47. 1–3; for a discussion of cavalry combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 235–244.
28. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 16, Livy 22. 49. 2–5, Appian Hann. 24.
29. Ticinus, Polybius 3. 65. 5–11; infantry interspersed with cavalry, Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1. 48, 7. 36, 7. 80, Bellum Civile 2. 34, 3. 75, 3. 84, African War 20, 61, 78, and discussion in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 242–244.
30. Livy 22. 47. 3.
31. Polybius 3. 116. 5, Livy 22. 48. 1–4, Appian, Hann. 20, 22–23.
32. Noise, Polybius 1. 34. 2, 15. 12. 8; importance of appearance, Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 2. 21, Plutarch, Lucullus 27. 5 and discussion in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 192–197.
33. Polybius 3. 114. 2–4, 115. 5–7, Livy 22. 46. 5–6, 47. 4–5; Germans, Tacitus Germania 3.
34. Gaesatae, Polybius 2. 28. 8, 29. 7–9.
35. On the range of the pilum, see J. Vechère de Reffyre, ‘Les Armes d’Alise’, RA 2 (1864), p. 342, and M. Junkelmann, Die Legionen des Augustus (Mainz, 1991), p. 188; Josephus Bellum Judaicum 3. 259, 266, 4. 20. For a detailed study of the use of missiles by Roman infantry see A. Zhmodikov, ‘Roman Republican Heavy Infantrymen in Battle (IV–II centuries BC), Historia 49. 1 (2000), pp. 67–78, and also the comments in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 192–201.
36. For discussions of infantry combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 191–227, and see P. Sabin, ‘The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War’, in Cornell, Rankov and Sabin (1996), pp. 59–79, esp. 64–73; for a detailed discussion of the most extensive set of grave finds see B. Thordeman, Armour from the Battle of Wisby 1361. vols. 1–2 (Stockholm, 1939), esp. vol. 1, pp. 94–95, 160–194.
37. Hoplite warfare see V. Hanson, The Western Way of War (New York, 1989), J. Lazenby, ‘The Killing Zone’, in V. Hanson (ed.), Hoplites (New York, 1991), pp. 87–109, and A. Goldsworthy, ‘ The Othismos, Myths and Heresies’, War in History 4 (1997), pp. 1–26.
38. Plutarch, Cato the Elder 1; multiple head wounds, see M. Wheeler, Maiden Castle, Dorset (1943), p. 352 as well as Thordeman (1939) passim.
39. Centurions, Polybius 6. 24. 9; senior officers at Cannae, Polybius 3. 116. 1–4, Livy 22. 49. 2. For a detailed discussion of the role of Roman commanders at a later period see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 149–163.
40. Livy 22. 47. 5–6.
41. For a full discussion of casualties see Appendix 2.
42. Polybius 3. 115. 6.
43. Polybius 3. 115. 8–10, Livy 22. 47. 7–10.
44. Polybius 3. 116. 5–8, Livy 22. 48. 5–6.
45. E.g. B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), p. 139, Lazenby (1978), p. 84, Connolly (1981), p. 188. For a vivid attempt to reconstruct this final phase see V. Hanson, ‘Cannae’, in R. Cowley (ed.) Experience of War (New York, 1992), pp. 42–49.
46. E.g. Connolly (1981), p. 187.
47. On the proper behaviour for soldiers and commanders in defeat see N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990).
48. Ranks packed too densely so that the men in front could not retreat were always a source of especially high casualties, e.g. Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 5. 43, Tacitus, Annals 2. 20, 14. 37, Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 3. 271–275.
49. Death of Paullus, Polybius 3. 116. 9, Livy 22. 49. 6–12, cf. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 16.
50. Polybius 3. 117. 1–6, Livy 22. 49. 13–50. 3, 52. 6; for a full discussion see Appendix 2.
CHAPTER 5
1. Livy 22. 51. 5–9; for British casualties on the Somme see M. Middlebrook, The First Day of the Somme (London, 1971), pp. 262–264 and also see Appendix 2.
2. Livy 22. 50. 4–12, 52. 4, and for the lower estimate see Frontinus, Strategemata 4. 5. 7.
3. Polybius 3. 117. 7–12, Livy 22. 52. 1–6.
4. Polybius 3. 117. 2, Livy 22. 50. 3, 52. 7–53. 13.
5. Livy 22. 54. 1–6.
6. Livy 22. 54. 7–56. 8, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 17–18.
7. Livy 22. 51. 1–4.
8. For useful surveys of the evidence and arguments claiming that it was never Hannibal’s intention to attack Rome see J. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War (Warminster, 1978), pp. 85–86, and “Was Hannibal Right?”, in T. Cornell, B. Rankov and P. Sabin (edd.) The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, BICS Supplement 67 (London, 1996), 39–48, and also H. Delbrück (trans. J. Renfroe), History of the Art of War 1 (Nebraska, 1975), pp. 336–344; for arguments based on logistics see J. Shean, ‘Hannibal’s Mules: The Logistical Limitations of Hannibal’s Army and the Battle of Cannae, 216 BC’, Historia 45 (1996), pp. 159–187.
9. Livy 26. 11. 6.
10. Livy 22. 58. 1–61. 15.
11. See A. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars (London, 2000), pp. 216–219, and B.D. Hoyos “Hannibal: What Kind of Genius?”, Greece and Rome 30 (1983), pp. 171–180, esp. 177–178; use of negotiations over casualties to initiate peace talks see Livy 33. 11–12.
12. N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990), pp. 139–140, Livy 22. 57. 10–12, 61. 14–5, 23. 14. 1–4.
13. Livy 22. 53. 7–9; refusal to negotiate with Pyrrhus, Plutarch, Pyrrhus 18–20.
14. For general accounts of the war after Cannae see Lazenby (1978), p. 87+, B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), p. 140, and Goldsworthy (2000), p. 219; for Postumius’ defeat see Polybius 3. 118. 6, Livy 23. 24. 6–13.
15. Livy 23. 12. 1–2.
16. Livy 39. 51.
Index
Aegates Islands, Battle of, 10
Aemilianus, Scipio, 4, 59
Aemilius Paullus, Lucius. See Paullus, Lucius Aemilius
Africans, 1, 49–50, 115, 121–122
alae (wings)
deployment, 107, 117–118
organization of, 42–43
preparation for battle, 90
size, 103, 105–106, 109
Albinus, Lucius Postumius, 70, 199
Antiochus III, King, 14–15
Appian, 4, 142
Apulia, 77, 99
Arretium, 25
Atilius, Lucius, 180
Atilius Regulus, Marcus, 32, 77, 80
Au
fidius, River
Hannibal’s army’s position by, 86, 91
Roman army’s position by, 84, 86, 89, 96–104, 114–115
topography, 81, 127, 174
Balearic slingers, 48, 51, 131
Barcid family, 12, 53
See also Hamilcar; Hannibal; Hasdrubal
battles, ancient
conventions of war, 197–198
hand-to-hand combat, 152–162
keeping troops in order, 162–164
mutual consent, 29–30
shouting, 146, 152
skirmish combats, 127–130
spears and javelins, 147–150
swords and shields, 154–160
Bibaculus, Lucius Furius, 180–181
Bibulus, Lucius Publicius, 186
Bithynia, 203
Boii, 68
Busa, 186
caetrati, 50, 131
Cannae, Battle of
casualties, 1, 179–181, 184
cavalry clash on wings, 132–144
charge to contact, 151–166
defeat of Romans, 173–181
encirclement of Roman forces, 166–173
Hannibal’s offer to negotiate with Romans, 193
historians’ location of battlefield, 93–103, 94–95 (map)
historical perspective, 1, 204–206
initial deployment of Hannibal’s army, 119–126
initial deployment of Roman army, 103–118
opening moves, 126–144
phase 1 (map), 133
phases 2-5 (maps), 140–141
pre-battle maneuvering, 84–86
Roman center’s advance, 144–151
Romans’ reaction to defeat at Cannae, 194–197
Romans’ unusual formation, 135, 168
Rome’s refusal to negotiate, 196
terms of surrender, 185–186
Cannae, town of, 78, 81
Canusium, 78, 99, 185–187, 194
Carthage, 3, 7–11, 16, 46, 47, 203
Carthalo, 193, 196
Cato the Elder, 158
cavalry, Hannibal’s
Africans, 49–50
attack on Roman rear, 172–175
clash on wings, 132–144
comparison to Roman cavalry, 54–55
deployment at Cannae, 120, 125
Gallic tribes, 51–54
pursuit of fleeing Romans, 173
size of, 119
Spanish, 50–51, 119
cavalry, Roman
casualties, 180–181
comparison to Hannibal’s cavalry, 54–55
dismounting during battle, 136–138
equipment, 36–37
formation at Cannae, 106–107
retreat of, 139, 142
size of, 103–104
survivors of Cannae, 186
use of four-horned saddle, 37, 136
vulnerability, 116–117
weaknesses of, 29
Celtiberians, 47, 143
Celts, 1, 125, 152, 166, 169. See also Gauls
Centenius, Gaius, 27, 104
Cisalpine Gaul, 70, 73, 74, 119
Claudius, Appius, 186
cohorts, 42, 121
Connolly, Peter, 102
consuls
dispute between consuls, 72–73, 82
election of, 41
equality of power, 28
joining forces, 44
leadership roles, 19, 70
cornicen, 37
decurions, 37, 44
Delbrück, Hans, 98, 114
dictators, 44
Ebro, River, 13
elephants, 15, 23–24, 48
extraordinarii, 43, 83
Fabius Maximus, Quintus, 28–33, 68, 73, 75, 188
Falaise Gap, Battle of, 206
falcata, 50
First Punic War, 9–10, 15
Flaminius, Gaius, 25–27, 58, 68
Gaul, 20–21 (maps), 58
Gauls
absorption into Hannibal’s army, 19, 24, 52–54
at Battle of Cannae, 120–125, 134, 138, 145–146, 151, 164–166, 175
battles with Romans, 65
recruitment of, 119
weapons, 51
Geminus. See Servilius Geminus
Gerunium, 31, 67, 77
Gisgo, 81
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, 195
Hamilcar Barca, 10–12, 14, 50
hand-to-hand combat, 152–162
Hannibal Barca
battlefield selection, 79–80
capture of Seguntum, 13
capture of town of Cannae, 78
character, 18
devastation of Italian countryside, 26, 30
exile and death, 203
failure to proceed from Cannae to Rome, 189–192
hatred of Rome, 14–15
leadership ability, 14, 206
march to Italy, 18–19, 20–21 (maps), 22–23
marriage, 50
other military successes in Italy, 23–24, 57–58, 198–199, 201
plan for war on Rome, 15–17
as tactician, 2, 206
war in Italy after Cannae, 198–203
See also Cannae, Battle of
Hannibal’s army
Balearic slingers, 48, 51, 131
cavalry, 49–50
Celtiberians, 47, 143
Celts, 1, 125, 152, 166, 169
comparison to Roman army, 54–55
diversity of, 46–48, 52
equipment, 49–51
experience and discipline, 53
Ligurians, 47, 48
Numidians, 49–50, 119–120, 123–124, 143
skirmishers, 49, 50
See also Cannae, Battle of; Gauls; Libyans; Spanish troops
Hanno, 124, 199
Hasdrubal Barca
cavalry charge against Roman cavalry, 134, 139, 142, 172
control of men at Cannae, 204
defeat in Italy, 201
marriage, 50, 124
pursuit of fleeing Romans, 175, 201
as son-in-law of Hamilcar, 12
as squadron commander at Cannae, 50
treaty with Rome, 13
hastati, 37–40, 107–108, 110, 151, 164–165
Herdonea, Battle of, 201
History of Rome from the Foundation on the City (Livy), 4
human sacrifice, 195
Illyrian War, 60
infantry, Roman
attack on Punic center, 169–171
casualties, 180–181
deployment formation, 40, 43
depth of, 114
encirclement of, 173
method of attack, 144
organization of, 37, 39
reliance on, 122–123
size of, 66, 103, 109, 130
skirmish combats, 122–123, 127–128
training, 132
Varro’s unusual formation of, 106, 168
Insubres, 68
Josephus, 148
Kromayer, J., 100
legions
cavalry of, 43
derivation of term, 35–36
disciplinary system, 45
equipment, 38
fighting stance of legionaries, 155–156
initial deployment at Cannae, 103–113
leaving camp, 89–90
number of legions at Cannae, 65–71
organization of, 37, 40–41
size, 39–40
as temporary units, 67
Lehmann, Konrad, 98, 114
Lentulus, Cnaeus, 178
Liby-Phoenicians, 48
Libyans
attack on Roman flanks, 170–171
deployment at Cannae, 121–123
hand-to-hand fighting at Cannae, 175–176
as indigenous Cartagenians, 8
reliability of, 48–49
Ligurians, 47, 48
Livy, account by
as author of History of Rome from the Foundation of the City, 4
casualties, 179–1
81
Fabius’s strategy, 32
Hannibal’s failure to proceed to Rome, 188–190
on Paullus, 132, 137
resistance by Gallic and Spanish infantry, 164–165
Roman “scorched earth” tactic, 73–74
size of Roman army, 66–67
sources, 4
on Varro, 60–61
Varro and Paullus’ relationship, 72–73
Macedonian Wars, 3, 202
Magister Equitum (Master of Horse), 28, 69, 180, 195
Mago Barca
defeat in northern Italy, 201
deployment at Cannae, 124
as Hannibal’s brother, 53
responsibilities at Cannae, 162, 175
return to Carthage, 199
Maharbal, 124, 189
maniples
at Cannae, 169, 171, 173–174, 205
formation, 107–108, 110
gaps between, 110, 144, 167
organization, 37, 39–40, 42
training, 46
Varro’s changes in formation, 107–108
Varro’s deployment of, 168
Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, 70, 195
Master of Horse (Magister Equitum), 28, 69, 180, 195
Matho, Marcus Pomponius, 70
Maximus, Fabius. See Fabius Maximus, Quintus
Mercenary War, 11, 47
Metellus, Marcus Caecilius, 187
Minucius Rufus, Marcus, 28, 31, 44, 68, 69, 180
Monomachus, Hannibal, 18
Montgomery, Bernard L., 189
novus homo (new man), 25, 60, 62, 64
Numidians
deployment at Cannae, 120, 123–124
harassment of Roman camp, 86–87, 92
number of in Hannibal’s army, 119
tactics, 49–50, 143
oath taken by soldiers, 69
Octavius, Cnaeus, 185
optio/optiones, 37, 113
Paullus, Lucius Aemilius
dismounting from horse in battle, 136–137
dispute with Varro, 59–60
election as leader of Roman army, 58, 62
favorable treatment by Polybius, 59
leader of citizen cavalry, 117
leadership actions, 162, 167
pre-battle maneuvering, 84–85
pursuit of fleeing Romans, 142
reluctance to engage Hannibal’s army, 91–92
tracking Hannibal’s army, 80–82
Pera, Marcus Junius, 195
phalanx, 28, 170–172
Philip V, King of Macedon, 202
Philus, Publius Furius, 70, 187
Phoenicians, 7
Picenum, 29
Pictor, Fabius, 194
pila, 39, 111, 147–149, 150–151
Placentia, 23
Plutarch, 4, 136