raids from outside, 132–133
in Roman Empire, xiv, 1–2, 5, 53–54, 124–126
third century AD changes, 124–126
tribes at time of invasion, 7–8
troubles in third century AD, 126, 128–129
troubles under Commodus, 47–48
troubles under Marcus Aurelius, 43
war in Antoninus Pius reign, 41–42
war under Severus, 49–50, 86
warfare unreported in sources, 87–88
Broad Wall, 24–25, 39 (photo)
Caesar (Julius Caesar), 1–2, 4, 11, 14
Caledonians, 49, 50
Caracalla, 120
Carausius, 53, 125
Carlisle (Luguvallium), 8, 73–74
Carlisle writing tablets, 9, 91
Carrawburgh fort, 140
Carrawburgh temple, 104, 140–141
Cassius Dio (Dio), 45, 47, 50
causeways, 25, 55, 57
cavalrymen, 116 (drawing)
description, 116–117
numbers at Hadrian’s Wall, 112
sculpture of, 11, 13
Cawfields. See Milecastle 42
centurions, 34
chalet-barracks, 75 (photo), 81–82
chariots, use in war, 11
Chesters fort, 24, 100 (photo)
children
of soldiers, 84–85, 107–108
tombstones and inscriptions, 102
Christianity, 106
chronology of events, vii–x
churches (Christian), 107
Cicero, 2
cippi (stakes or spikes), 60
citizenship, 29, 33, 120
civil settlements. See vicus (vici) settlement
civil wars in Empire, 52–53, 128–129, 131
Claudia Severa, 12
Claudius, 7
climate, in northern Britain, xiii
clothing of army, 121, 127, 130
Cnaeus Julius Agricola, 8
cohors I Tungrorum, soldiers, 91
comitatenses (‘mobile field units’), 125
commander’s house (praetorium), 77, 103, 103 (drawing)
Commodus, Emperor, 45, 47–49
Connolly, Peter, 63, 64
conquest of Britain, 1–2, 5
Constantine, Emperor, 106, 126
Constantius I, 125–126
Constantius III, 128
construction of Hadrian’s Wall, 18, 20–21, 23–25, 27, 35, 37, 38, 60
contubernium, 80–81
Corbridge (Coria), 9–10, 73–74, 117
Corionototae people, 117
Coventina (or Covventina), 104, 105 (photo)
curator, morning routine, 88–89
currency and coins, 89, 122
deaths, in vici, 101–102
Decimus Clodius Albinus, 49
decommission of Hadrian’s Wall, 42–43, 54–55
deities and gods, 102, 104, 106–107, 122
dendrochronological analysis, at forts, 8
Dere Street, 25, 73
Dio (Cassius Dio), 45, 47, 50
diplomacy, 112
ditch at Hadrian’s Wall, 25, 57–58, 60, 65
documentation by army, 89–91, 92
Domitian, Emperor, 8–9
druids and Druidic cult, 106
eastern section of Hadrian’s Wall, berm, 58
Empire (Roman Empire)
boundaries, 5
Britain in, xiv, 1–2, 5, 53–54, 124–126
changes of third century AD, 124–126
citizenship, 120
civil wars, 52–53, 128–129, 131
end of formal rule in Britain, 128–129, 133, 135
expansion, 4–5, 10, 17
in fourth and fifth centuries AD, 131–132
Hadrian’s Wall in, xiv–xv
irregular units, 120
legacy and remains in Britain, 135–136
power struggles, 128–129, 131–132
and soldiers, 120
visits by Hadrian, 17–18
equestrians (equites)
military posts, 33–34, 125
religion, 104
wife and children, 107–108
equipment and supplies in army, 91, 121, 127, 130
ethnicity in army, 31
eye health, 78
families of soldiers, 84–85, 107–108
Fanum Cocidii (Bewcastle outpost fort), 104
Flavius Ceralis, 92
food and drink, 96–97, 99, 101
footwear, 99, 110, 110 (photo)
forts
along Hadrian’s Wall, 23, 37–38, 69
on Antonine Wall, 42
changes of third century AD, 121–122, 124
civilians in, 122
construction, 23–24, 25
dendrochronological analysis, 8
at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133–134
food and meals, 96–97, 99, 101
headquarters (principia), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)
layout and shape, 76, 86
lifestyle in, 77
maintenance, 94
purpose, 63
and settlements, 74
soldiers and troops, 23, 37–38, 53–54, 80–81, 83–86, 91–92
structures at, 76–78, 80–82, 84–86
vici (see vicus (vici) settlement)
See also specific buildings and features of forts; specific forts
foundations of Hadrian’s Wall, 60, 70 (photo)
galearii (helmet wearers), 84
Gallic empire, 53
garrisons
accommodation, 66
known and probable, 149–151
location along Hadrian’s Wall, 23
numbers of soldiers at, 91–92
gates
at forts, 76–77
at milecastles, 68, 71
gateways in forts, 20, 23, 59 (photo), 67
reconstruction, 67 (photo)
Germanic tribesmen, as irregular units, 119
Germany, 27, 132
Gerunia district, 41
Gildas, 136–137
gods and deities, 102, 104, 106–107, 122
granaries (horrea), 51 (drawing), 79 (photo), 123 (photo)
changes in, 124
description and use, 78, 79, 123
Gratian, Emperor, 128
Hadrian, Emperor
background and character, 15, 17
bronze head, xvi (photo)
construction and planning of Wall, xvi, xvii, 18, 20
death and succession, 38
deification, 38
as successor to Trajan, 17
training of soldiers, 94–95
visit to Britain, xvi, 18
visits to legions, 17–18
Hadrian’s Wall, xiii (photo), 3 (photo), 6 (photo), 16 (map), 39 (photo), 44 (map), 59 (photo)
access across for army, 111–112
ancient literature on, xvii
changes of third century AD, 121–122, 124–125
construction, 18, 20–21, 23–25, 27, 35, 37, 38, 60
cross-section, 64 (drawing)
crossing by travellers, 109, 111
crossings for raids, 114–115, 117–118
decline and remnants, 135–136
decommission, 42–43, 54–55
defense of, 113–115
description, xiv–xv, 16, 20, 60–61
design, 20
at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133–134
foundations, 60, 70 (photo)
in fourth and fifth centuries AD, 131, 133–135
in history after Roman era, 136–137
importance, xiv–xv
maintenance, 94
obstacles in front of, 60, 70 (photo)
outsiders on northern side (see northern tribes and peoples)
physical components, 57–58, 60–62, 65–66, 68–69, 71
purpose, xv, xvii, xx, 27, 42, 111, 113
recommission and rebuilding, 43, 45, 111
repairs in thir
d century AD, 124
research on, xvii–xix
on Rudge Cup, 19 (photo)
social life and trade, 107
stone wall (see Stone Wall)
and surveillance of tribes, 112
towns along, 73–74, 76
and trade, 74, 107, 122
turf wall (see Turf Wall)
as Vallum or Vallum Aelium (see Vallum)
walkway on top, 61
width, 24–25
See also specific features and sections
Hadrian’s Wall Path, 141
handwriting, 12 (photo)
head hunting, 116, 116 (drawing)
headquarters at forts (principia), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)
High Rochester, 107
Hnaudifridius, 119
Horace, 5
horrea. See granaries
horses
equipment, 116, 116 (drawing)
stables, 82, 84
training, 94–95
hospital (valetudinarium), 78, 80
Housesteads fort, 6 (photo), 26 (drawing), 63 (drawing)
chalet-barracks, 75 (photo)
construction, 24, 26
gate, 73
granaries, 79 (photo)
irregular units, 119
latrines, 85
praetorium, 103 (drawing)
principia, 93 (drawing)
vicus, 76
II Augusta legion, 10
Inchtuthil fortress, 8, 9
infantry barracks. See barracks
infantryman, 46, 46 (drawing)
inns, in vici, 101
Josephus, 96
Julius Caesar, 1–2, 4, 11, 14
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 102, 104
Kipling, Rudyard, xi, xii, 128
Knag Burn gate, 73
knights. See equestrians
latrines, 85, 98 (drawing)
legates (legatus legionis), 33
legionaries, 32 (drawing), 127 (drawing)
building of Hadrian’s Wall, 35
description, 31, 32, 127
legions
in Britain, 7, 8–9, 10, 18, 29, 31
changes of third century AD, 121, 125
description and size, 29, 121
Limestone Corner, 58, 69
limetanei (‘frontier garrisons’), 125
Luguvallium (Carlisle), 8, 73–74
Maeatae group, fighting against Romans, 49–50
mansio, 51 (drawing)
Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, 43, 45
marginal mound, 45, 69
Mark Antony, 4
marriage for soldiers, 84–85
Maryport fort, 76, 107
Maximus, Magnus, Emperor 128
meals at forts, 97
measurements, system and conversions, xx
medical care of soldiers, 78, 80
Meditations (Marcus Aurelius), 43
Milecastle 35, 68, 71
Milecastle 37, 6 (photo), 64 (drawing)
gateway, 59 (photo)
Milecastle 39, 3 (photo)
Milecastle 47, 66
Milecastle 52, 66
Milecastle 42 (Cawfields), xiii (photo), 68
Milecastle 48 (Poltross Burn), 60, 66, 140
milecastles
along Hadrian’s Wall, 20, 21
construction and changes, 21, 54–55
description and sizes, 65–66, 68
entrances and gateways, 68
numbering system, xx
occupation of, 66
reconstruction, 36 (photo)
See also specific milecastles
military. See army (Roman Army)
Military Way, construction, 45
mithraism and mithraeum, 104, 140–141
Mons Graupius battle, 11–13
murders, in vici, 101
Narrow Wall, 24–25, 39 (photo), 61
Newstead (Trimontium), 9
northern Britain, 44 (map)
climate, xiii
local religions, 106
northern tribes and peoples, 44 (map)
as army and warriors, 11, 13
control by Romans, 8–11
and first sites of Hadrian’s Wall, 9–10
knowledge of, xviii–xix
raids on Hadrian’s Wall, 14, 114–115, 117–118
surveillance of, 112
wars and conflicts with Romans, xviii–xix, 10–14
obstacles in front of wall, 60, 70 (photo)
officers, 33–34, 99
optio, morning routine, 88–89
outposts, beyond walls, 42
parapet on Hadrian’s Wall, 61–62, 64 (drawing)
Parnesius, story in Puck of Pook’s Hill, xi–xii, 128
Pausanias, 41
pay and deductions of soldiers, 89–91
Peel Gap turrets, 39 (photo), 62, 140
physical components of Hadrian’s Wall, 57–58, 60–62, 65–66, 68–69, 71
Picts
troubles in third century AD, 126, 128
use of name, 52
plague, 48
plundering raids, 115, 117–118
Poltross Burn. See Milecastle 48
praetorium (commander’s house), 77, 103, 103 (drawing)
prefects (praefectus), 34, 77
princeps and principate, 4
principia (headquarters at forts), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)
Puck of Pook’s Hill (Kipling), xi, xii
raids
on Britain, 132–133
in Europe, xviii–xix, 14
by northern tribes and peoples, 14, 114–115, 117–118
recommission of Hadrian’s Wall, 43, 45, 111
Regina (wife of Barates), 101–102
religion and ritual, 102, 104, 105 (photo), 106–107, 122
roads, 73, 76–77, 136
Roman Army. See army
Rome and Rome’s Republic
civil war, 4
expansion and conquests, 2–4, 5
foundation, 2
leaders and governance, 2, 4
See also Empire
Rudge Cup, 19 (photo)
Saint Severinus, 135
‘scorpions’, type of catapult (ballista), 65
Scots, and troubles in third century AD, 126, 128
See also Picts
senators, military posts, 33, 34, 125
Senhouse Museum, 141
Septimius Severus. See Severus (Emperor)
settlements. See vicus (vici) settlement
Severus (Emperor) (Lucius Septimius Severus)
wrongly believed builder of Hadrian’s Wall, 137
character, 49
death and succession, 50, 52
division of Britain, 124–125
and Hadrian’s Wall, 50, 52
visit to Britain, 50
war in Britain, 49–50, 86
Severus (slave), 99
shoes, 99, 110, 110 (photo)
slaves, 84, 99
sleeping quarters, 81
soldiers, 130 (drawing)
food and drink, 96–97, 99
footwear, 99
in forts, 23, 37–38, 53–54, 80–81, 83–86, 91–92
leave for, 97
life along Hadrian’s Wall, 88–92, 94
medical care, 78, 80
at milecastles, 66
morning routine, 88–89
numbers of, 91–92, 111
pay and deductions, 89–91
postings at Hadrian’s Wall, 68
readiness for battles, 96
and Roman Empire, 120
service and conscription, 33, 120–121
training, 94–96
in turrets, 62, 65, 66
warfare, 88
wife and children, 84–85, 107–108
South Shields fort
barracks, 83 (photo)
description, 86
at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133
rebuilding and changes, 122, 124
tombstones, 102
South Shields gateway, reconstruction, 67 (photo)
squared rubble, for construction, 35
stables for horses, 82, 84
stakes (spikes) (cippi), 60
Stanegate Road, 9–10, 51 (drawing)
stone
for Hadrian’s Wall construction, 35, 37, 60
layout, 64 (photo)
Stone Wall
building style, 60
description, 20, 60–61
reconstruction, 70 (photo)
See also Turf Wall
Strabo, 5
strip housing, 76
Sulpicia Lepidina, 12
swords, 121
Temple to Mithras (at Carrawburgh), 104, 140–141
Theodosius, Emperor, 128
timber, for wall building, 24
tombstones and inscriptions, 102
tourism at Hadrian’s Wall, xv, 139–141
towers, 64 (drawing)
See also turrets
towns along Hadrian’s Wall, description and life in, 73–74, 76
trade and Hadrian’s Wall, 74, 107, 122
training of soldiers, 94–96
Trajan, Emperor, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17
travellers, crossing of Hadrian’s Wall, 109, 111
Trimontium (Newstead), 9
turf, in construction, 36
Turf Wall
construction, 20, 21, 27
rebuilding, 45
See also Stone Wall
turrets, 39 (photo)
along Hadrian’s Wall, 20, 21, 39
cutaway view, 64 (drawing)
decommission, 54, 71
description, 62
height, 62
soldiers in, 62, 65, 66
Ulpius Marcellus, 47–48
UNESCO World Heritage Site, xv
valetudinarium (hospital), 78, 80
Vallum or Vallum Aelium (Wall of Aelius)
construction, 35, 69
cross-section, 64 (drawing)
description, xvii, 25, 69, 71
at Housesteads, 26, 26 (drawing), 63 (drawing)
and marginal mound, 45, 69
name of, xvii
and raids, 115
recommission, 45
See also Hadrian’s Wall
VI Victrix legion, 18
via praetoria, 76
via principalis, 76–77
vicus (vici) settlement (civil settlement), 51 (drawing)
description and life at, 74, 76
disappearance, 122
families of soldiers, 85
food and drink, 99
games and violence, 101
viewing platforms, along Hadrian’s Wall, 68
Vindolanda fort (at Chesterholm), 51 (drawing)
bathhouse, 98 (drawing)
civilians in, 122
description, 51
families of soldiers, 85
floors, 81
footwear, 110 (photo)
house nearby, 74
life and people in, 86
numbers of soldiers at, 91–92
visits to, 139
Vindolanda milecastle, reconstruction, 36 (photo)
Vindolanda writing tablets, 9, 12 (photo)